Immunity in children with exposure to environmental lead: II. Effects on humoral immunity

Lead has been found to depress the immune system in animal studies at levels far below those responsible for overt toxicity. Literature studies in animal systems most clearly showed an effect of lead on response to a specific immunogenic stimulus. Data are sparse concerning the effects of lead on the immune system in the human population at greatest risk for exposure-children up to six years of age. This portion of the Phase I study reports concentrations of IgG, IgM, IgA, and IgE, as well as antibody titers to the specific antigenic stimuli provided by the vaccines against diphtheria, tetanus, and Rubella. The study population consisted of a group of 193 children, ages 9 months to 6 years, who participate in the WIC (Women, Infants and Children) and Lead Poisoning Prevention Programs in the urban area of Springfield-Greene County Missouri. Blood lead levels ranged from 1 to 50 g dL^–1. Total Ig levels were determined and the data were analysed. No consistent significant differences were observed among the risk categories in the five age groups examined. A single Ig class in each of three age groups showed apparent significant differences among the various risk categories, but these differences were not correlated with blood lead. An analysis of specific antibody titers to diphtheria, tetanus, and Rubella was performed. Regression analyses of current data in Phase I of this study suggest a detrimental effect of lead on the antibody titres to diphtheria and Rubella.     

Declines in organochlorines in eggs of red-breasted mergansers from Lake Michigan, 1977–1978 versus 1990

From 1977–1978 to 1990, concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and most organochlorine pesticides declined in eggs of red-breasted mergansers (Mergus serrator) nesting on islands in northwestern Lake Michigan. Total PCBs decreased 60% (from 21 ppm in 1977–1978 to 8.5 ppm in 1990) and p,p-DDE decreased 66% (from 6.5 to 2.2 ppm). Dieldrin decreased only 16% (from 0.82 to 0.69 ppm). In 1990, 79.1% of incubated eggs hatched, which was not significantly different from the 83.5% that hatched in 1977–1978.The U.S. Government right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

Book reviews

Cost Benefit Analysis of Environmental Change

Per‐Olov Johansson

Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1993, 232 pp., £13.95

Computerised Environmental Modelling: A Practical Introduction using Excel

J. Hardisty, D. M. Taylor & S. E. Metcalfe

Chichester, Wiley, 1993, 204 pp., £14.95

Keeping Pace with Science and Engineering: Case Studies in Environmental Regulation

Washington DC, US National Academy of Engineering, 1993

World Without End: Economics, Environment and Sustainable Development

D. W. Pearce & J. J. Warford

Oxford University Press, New York, 1993, 440 pp., £35.95     

Responses of Gammarus pulex (Amphipoda, Crustacea) to metalliferous effluents: identification of toxic components and the importance of interpopulation variation

This study was designed to evaluate the ability of an in-situ bioassay to assess the impact of complex effluents on freshwaters and to identify toxic components. Reductions in the feeding rate of Gammarus pulex proved to be a sensitive indicator of the impact of metalliferous effluents on receiving water quality. The effluents contained a mixture of five potentially toxic metals. By combining information on feeding rates with bioaccumulation data, two metals, iron and manganese, were identified as the probable toxic agents. Laboratory experiments validated the conclusions reached from the field study and confirmed that iron was a major toxicant. The sensitivities of Gammarus pulex from a metal-contaminated site and a clean site were compared during both the field and laboratory studies. Interpopulation differences in the response of G. pulex to toxicants were detected in the field study but not in the laboratory experiments. Possible reasons for this are discussed.     

Climatic sensitivity of temperate forests

Climatic change and associated global changes are of major interest to foresters, both in terms of forest ecology and of future forest production. Predicting the likely effects of global change on forests is extremely difficult due to the critical lack of information on regional changes in meteorological factors relevant to forests. However, existing models of forest production and forest distribution fail to take adequate account of what is already known. Climate and carbon dioxide concentrations have shown substantial changes over the last 100 years. Although the rate of change is likely to increase, recent proposed and implemented control strategies, together with better climatic models, are tending to suggest that the rate of change will be less than initially thought. This means that past changes may provide an increasingly useful source of information. In particular, information on the impact on forests of both long-term climate change and short-term climatic events is rapidly increasing. Such information should be built into future forest response models.     

Association between the mollusc bivalve Loripes lucinalis and a Chlamydia-like organism,with comments on its pathogenic impact,life cycle and possible mode of transmission

Loripes lucinalis is a littoral bivalve which has already been confirmed to harbour endo-cellular sulfur-oxidizing bacteria within its gills. Examination of the digestive gland of L. lucinalis collected from the Moulin Blanc Beach in the Bay of Brest (Brittany, France) revealed the existence of an additional association involving a Chlamydia-like organism. Three different forms of Chlamydia-like bacteria were observed: reticulate rod-shaped cells, electron-dense cells and enlarged cells. The reticulate rod-shaped cells and the electron-dense bodies are thought to represent the germinal initial body and infectious form of the bacteria, respectively. The enlarged cells were always associated with what are believed to be spherical or icosahedral phages. Initial infestation seems to occur by phagocytosis at the apical pole of the digestive cells of the tubule and duct epithelia. Within the host cell, the bacteria undergo binary fission and budding, forming an inclusion which gradually fills up the cell. Inclusions are generally between 15 and 30 m in size, and > 85% of all individuals examined possessed inclusion bodies. The level of infestation varied between individuals, some being heavily colonized, but did not seem to be related to season. Histological and ultrastructural observations suggest that, once developed, the colony has three possible fates: (1) the cells will degenerate due to phage infection; (2) colony overcrowding will occur, causing the development of electron-dense bodies that will be released into the lumen; (3) the entire membrane-bound inclusion will be released into the lumen and subsequently into the pallial cavity. Inclusions within the pallial cavity may be ingested by the host or may even be phagocytized by bacteriocyte cells of the gill. It is proposed that this association could be a form of symbiosis and that L. lucinalis may, therefore, be a rare example of an organism adapted to harbour two very different symbioses.     

Comparison of allozyme and mitochondrial DNA spatial differentiation in the limpet Patella vulgata

Allozyme and restriction enzyme analysis of mtDNA was used to study variation in samples from British populations of the marine limpet Patella vulgata in two regions. South Wales and Northeast England. Allozyme analysis revealed significant differences in allele frequencies among samples. However F _ST (population differentiation) values were no higher between than within regions, indicating that genetic heterogeneity was localised and not related to geographic separation. For mtDNA, samples from South Wales exhibited higher haplotype diversity values than samples from Northeast England. In addition there were substantial differences in the haplotype distribution between regions. The value of , the haploid analogoue of F _ST , was low within regions (=0.09) but high between regions (=0.44). The estimated difference in migration rate for allozymes and mtDNA exceed the neutral expectation, unless it is assumed that there are influential differences in the magnitude of female and male gametic dispersal.     

Induction of metamorphosis in larvae of the oyster Crassostrea gigas using neuroactive compounds

Chemical (neuroactive compounds at different concentrations and exposure times) and physical (water agitation, light) factors with potential effects on the metamorphosis of larvae of the oyster Crassostrea gigas (Thunberg) larvae have been studied. The neurotransmitters l-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DO), epinephrine (EP), norepinephrine (NE), and acetylcholine (AC) have been identified as very active inducers of metamorphosis, whilst serotonin (SE), dopamine (DA) and potassium (K) were less effective inducers. The -aminobutyric acid (GA) and ammonium (AM) were found ineffective at the concentrations tested. Exposure to 10^-4 M EP for 15 min was sufficient to promote >80% metamorphosis within 48 h, whereas NE required 2 h to exert comparable induction. Maximum induction by DO (>50%) was achieved after 2 h exposure to 10^-4 M. However, unlike EP and NE, DO was lethal at that concentration in the long term. Maximum induction by AC (30% metamorphosis) was achieved at a concentration of 10^-4 M. In contrast to other neurotransmitters, AC induced settlement behaviour, cementation and eventual metamorphosis, yielding postlarvae which were all attached to the substratum. EP and NE triggered the morphogenetic changes, by-passing settlement and leading to postlarvae not cemented to the substratum. DO induced mostly attached spat at low concentrations (10^-5 M) and unattached spat at high concentrations (10^-4 M), and a similar pattern was apparent for the weaker inducers SE and DA. Regarding physical factors, a highly reflectant surface significantly increased the percentage of attached spat obtained, compared to a dark bottom. No consistent effect of water current or light was detected on the production of unattached spat. The three different forms of induction are discussed in relation to different regulatory pathways of settlement and metamorphosis.     

Interactions between copper and cadmium modify metal organ distribution in mature tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus

Sexually mature female tilapia were exposed to sublethal concentrations of waterborne Cu and/or Cd over 6 days, and subsequent body concentrations of these metals were determined in several organs. The results show that the distribution of Cu and Cd was metal and organ specific. This is demonstrated, for example, by the observation that in tilapia, Cu exposure did not result in Cu accumulation in the liver, whereas in the intestinal wall, notably high concentrations of Cu and Cd were measured in metal exposed fish. In addition to single metal exposed fish, we also determined Cu and Cd body distribution in Cu?Cd co-exposed fish. The observed interactions in metal accumulation were most pronounced in the organs of fish exposed to low, environmentally realistic, metal concentrations.     

Climate change in mountain regions: a marginal issue?

Summary Mountain regions comprise one-fifth of the world's land surface. They are home to a tenth and important in the lives of half of humankind. Yet mountains are often regarded as physically, politically and economically marginal; their importance has only recently been globally recognized. The potential impacts of climate change in mountain regions will vary considerably between different types of regions. These are briefly described, as an introduction to an evaluation of the potential impacts with regard to agriculture, forestry, water resources, tourism, energy, transport and health. It is concluded that climate change cannot be considered a marginal issue and that the ability of mountain and downstream people to adapt and respond in the long term will require attention to the maintenance and use of local knowledge and cooperative social networks, as well as considerable scientific research.Dr Martin Price obtained his Ph.D from the University of Colorado at Boulder, following a first degree at the University of Sheffield and an MSc from the University of Calgary, Canada. He is currently the Programme Leader for the Mountain Regions Programme at the Environmental Change Unit at the University of Oxford. This paper was presented at the Global Forum '94 Academic Conference and it represents a revision of an article by the author in Beniston (1994).