A study on the dilemmas of resource utilization and tourism in Africa

This paper explores, explains and discusses issues around the dilemma between local conservation of natural resources (often, endangered species and habitats) and tourism needs in Africa. Often and in constitutional terms, local people have a right to exploit and use resources endowed in their local area. However, tourists often are interested in viewing the vegetation and animal resources undisturbed. Inevitably, there is an undeclared animosity of values and interests between local communities and tourists and state agencies. As a result, the dilemma is thus of governance. The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate the governance dilemma of resource utilization and tourism in Africa in a bid to create an informed stewardship framework for sustainability. This is achieved by way of case studies and narratives from Africa. As such, this paper will be a review literature on how different communities perceive tourism and derive livelihoods from their immediate environment. It also explains how the external factors influence local needs and interests. A more sustainable and operational framework that reduces friction among stakeholders is suggested.     

Valuing floodplain protection and avoidance in a coastal watershed

Flood‐related losses in the United States are increasing despite large‐scale mitigation efforts. To offset the rising cost of floods, the US Congress passed legislation in 2014 that will augment insurance premiums to make the National Flood Insurance Program more actuarially sound. Consequently, there is interest in lowering flood‐related costs to the homeowner, both in terms of premiums and damage. This study addresses the issue by integrating premium savings and damages avoided based on several mitigation scenarios. Specifically, it examines how much policyholders within a watershed near Houston, Texas, could have saved between 1999 and 2009 had their communities introduced specific avoidance‐based mitigation activities. The results indicate that homeowners and communities can offset premium rises and a majority of the damage suffered through marginal expansions of such initiatives. However, the costs associated with their implementation could counter some of these savings, and hence they need to be considered in future work.     

A Review of the External Positions of the Oil-Importing Developing Countries and their Relationship to the World Oil Market

Many oil-importing developing countries faced greater difficulties coping with the second oil shock (1979–80) than with the first (1973–74). The recent decline in oil prices has offset only a small part of the adverse effect of the earlier increases, and a number of these countries continue to face severe problems in servicing their external debt. This paper explores the reasons for these difficulties, which are associated in part with the higher levels of real interest rates in recent years and with the slowdown in economic activity in industrial countries. Estimates are provided of the effects of changing oil prices on the net real cost of oil imports in developing countries. The paper concludes with an assessment of the medium-term prospects for the financing of external deficits.     

Expanding the Range of Choice in Water Management: An Evaluation of Policy Approaches

This paper examines the ‘range of choice’ concept in water management. Although many efforts have been made to design policies that broaden the consideration of water resources alternatives, the experiences gained from these policy experiments have not been adequately assessed. What insights might American policy approaches offer for developing countries? To address this question, four general policy types were identified and compared: (1) comprehensive single-objective policies; (2) comprehensive multiple-objective policies; (3) specific non-structural policies; and (4) specific technological policies. Case studies of each approach revealed that effective institutional development occurs when policies are: (1) stated in clear and specific language; (2) modified as experience is gained; (3) adequate in terms of statutory and administrative authority; and (4) subject to an orderly process of public and judicial review. The most successful policy efforts to date have involved specific alternatives, while multiple-objective policies have encountered the most difficulties. Common institutional problems are identified, and their potential relevance for developing countries is discussed.     

A quantum cascade laser infrared spectrometer for CO2 stable isotope analysis: Field implementation at a hydrocarbon contaminated site under bio-remediation

Real-time methods to monitor stable isotope ratios of CO_2 are needed to identify biogeochemical origins of CO_2 emissions from the soil–air interface. An isotope ratio infra-red spectrometer(IRIS) has been developed to measure CO_2 mixing ratio with δ~13C isotopic signature, in addition to mixing ratios of other greenhouse gases(CH_4, N2_O). The original aspects of the instrument as well as its precision and accuracy for the determination of the isotopic signature δ~13C of CO_2 are discussed. A first application to biodegradation of hydrocarbons is presented, tested on a hydrocarbon contaminated site under aerobic bio-treatment. CO_2 flux measurements using closed chamber method is combined with the determination of the isotopic signature δ~13C of the CO_2 emission to propose a non-intrusive method to monitor in situ biodegradation of hydrocarbons. In the contaminated area, high CO_2 emissions have been measured with an isotopic signature δ~13C suggesting that CO_2 comes from petroleum hydrocarbon biodegradation.This first field implementation shows that rapid and accurate measurement of isotopic signature of CO_2 emissions is particularly useful in assessing the contribution of contaminant degradation to the measured CO_2 efflux and is promising as a monitoring tool for aerobic bio-treatment.     

Importance of the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska for Aquatic Birds

We used data from aerial surveys (1992–2010) of >100,000 km² and ground surveys (1998–2004) of >150 km² to estimate the density and abundance of birds on the North Slope of Alaska (U.S.A.). In the ground surveys, we used double sampling to estimate detection ratios. We used the aerial survey data to compare densities of birds and Arctic fox (Vulpes lagopus), the major nest predator of birds, on the North Slope, in Prudhoe Bay, and in nearby areas. We partitioned the Prudhoe Bay oil field into 2 × 2 km plots and determined the relation between density of aquatic birds and density of roads, buildings, and other infrastructure in these plots. Abundance and density (birds per square kilometer) of 3 groups of aquatic birds—waterfowl, loons, and grebes; shorebirds; and gulls, terns, and jaegers—were highest in the National Petroleum Reserve–Alaska (NPRA) and lowest in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Six other major wetlands occur in the Arctic regions of Canada and Russia, but the largest population of aquatic birds was in the NPRA. Aquatic birds were concentrated in the northern part of the NPRA. For example, an area that covered 18% of the NPRA included 53% of its aquatic birds. The aerial surveys showed that bird density was not lower and fox density was not higher in Prudhoe Bay than in surrounding areas. Density of infrastructure did not significantly affect bird density for any group of species. Our results establish that the NPRA is one of the most important areas for aquatic birds in the Arctic. Our results and those of others also indicate that oil production, as practiced in Prudhoe Bay, does not necessarily lead to substantial declines in bird density or productivity in or near the developed areas. Prioridades para la Conservación de Aves en el Norte de Alaska     

A Strategy for Monitoring and Managing Declines in an Amphibian Community

Although many taxa have declined globally, conservation actions are inherently local. Ecosystems degrade even in protected areas, and maintaining natural systems in a desired condition may require active management. Implementing management decisions under uncertainty requires a logical and transparent process to identify objectives, develop management actions, formulate system models to link actions with objectives, monitor to reduce uncertainty and identify system state (i.e., resource condition), and determine an optimal management strategy. We applied one such structured decision‐making approach that incorporates these critical elements to inform management of amphibian populations in a protected area managed by the U.S. National Park Service. Climate change is expected to affect amphibian occupancy of wetlands and to increase uncertainty in management decision making. We used the tools of structured decision making to identify short‐term management solutions that incorporate our current understanding of the effect of climate change on amphibians, emphasizing how management can be undertaken even with incomplete information. Estrategia para Monitorear y Manejar Disminuciones en una Comunidad de Anfibios     

Coral Reef Habitats as Surrogates of Species, Ecological Functions, and Ecosystem Services

Abstract: Habitat maps are often the core spatially consistent data set on which marine reserve networks are designed, but their efficacy as surrogates for species richness and applicability to other conservation measures is poorly understood. Combining an analysis of field survey data, literature review, and expert assessment by a multidisciplinary working group, we examined the degree to which Caribbean coastal habitats provide useful planning information on 4 conservation measures: species richness, the ecological functions of fish species, ecosystem processes, and ecosystem services. Approximately one‐quarter to one‐third of benthic invertebrate species and fish species (disaggregated by life phase; hereafter fish species) occurred in a single habitat, and Montastraea‐dominated forereefs consistently had the highest richness of all species, processes, and services. All 11 habitats were needed to represent all 277 fish species in the seascape, although reducing the conservation target to 95% of species approximately halved the number of habitats required to ensure representation. Species accumulation indices (SAIs) were used to compare the efficacy of surrogates and revealed that fish species were a more appropriate surrogate of benthic species (SAI = 71%) than benthic species were for fishes (SAI = 42%). Species of reef fishes were also distributed more widely across the seascape than invertebrates and therefore their use as a surrogate simultaneously included mangroves, sea grass, and coral reef habitats. Functional classes of fishes served as effective surrogates of fish and benthic species which, given their ease to survey, makes them a particularly useful measure for conservation planning. Ecosystem processes and services exhibited great redundancy among habitats and were ineffective as surrogates of species. Therefore, processes and services in this case were generally unsuitable for a complementarity‐based approach to reserve design. In contrast, the representation of species or functional classes ensured inclusion of all processes and services in the reserve network.