The development of effects-based air quality management regimes

This paper considers the evolution of attempts to control and manage air pollution, principally but not exclusively focussing upon the challenge of managing air pollution in urban environments. The development and implementation of a range of air pollution control measures are considered. Initially the measures implemented primarily addressed point sources, a small number of fuel types and a limited number of pollutants. The adequacy of such a source-control approach is assessed within the context of a changing and challenging air pollution climate. An assessment of air quality management in the United Kingdom over a 50-year timeframe exemplifies the range of issues and challenges in contemporary air quality management. The need for new approaches is explored and the development and implementation of an effects-based, risk management system for air quality regulation is evaluated.     

Reclamation and revegetation of fly ash disposal sites - Challenges and research needs

Coal-fired power generation is a principal energy source throughout the world. Approximately, 70-75% of coal combustion residues are fly ash and its utilization worldwide is only slightly above 30%. The remainder is disposed of in landfills and fly ash basins. It is desirable to revegetate these sites for aesthetic purposes, to stabilize the surface ash against wind and water erosion and to reduce the quantity of water leaching through the deposit. Limitations to plant establishment and growth in fly ash can include a high pH (and consequent deficiencies of Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn and P), high soluble salts, toxic levels of elements such as B, pozzalanic properties of ash resulting in cemented/compacted layers and lack of microbial activity. An integrated organic/biotechnological approach to revegetation seems appropriate and should be investigated further. This would include incorporation of organic matter into the surface layer of ash, mycorrhizal inoculation of establishing vegetation and use of inoculated legumes to add N. Leaching losses from ash disposal sites are likely to be site-specific but a sparse number of studies have revealed enriched concentrations of elements such as Ca, Fe, Cd, Pb, and Sb in surrounding groundwater. This aspect deserves further study particularly in the longer-term. In addition, during weathering of the ash and deposition of organic matter during plant growth, a soil will form with properties vastly different to that of the parent ash. In turn, this will influence the effect that the disposal site has on the surrounding environment. Nevertheless, the effects of ash weathering and organic matter accumulation over time on the chemical, physical and biological properties of the developing ash-derived soil are not well understood and require further study.     

Anoxic-aerobic treatment of the liquid fraction of cattle manure

Cattle manure from a dairy farm was treated in order to reduce its pollution potential. The manure came from a farm with 120 cows kept in stables in a free stall barn. As pretreatment, the manure is usually filtered on the farm using a screw press separator with a 0.5 mm mesh. Approximately 70% of the total filtered volume passes through the screen, thus constituting the liquid fraction. This fraction, with a composition of around 64,500 mg COD/l, 5770 mg total-N/l and 800 mg total-P/l, was subjected to centrifugation followed by a two-step biological treatment (anoxic-aerobic) to reduce organic matter (COD), nitrogen and phosphorus compounds. Centrifugation led to the following removal efficiencies: 35% total solids, 60% COD, 75% total phosphorus and 20% total nitrogen (mainly organic nitrogen). With the subsequent anoxic-aerobic treatment, average removal efficiencies of 85% for COD, 90% for total phosphorus and 75% for total nitrogen were achieved.     

Bench-scale composting of source-separated human faeces for sanitation

In urine-diverting toilets, urine and faeces are collected separately so that nutrient content can be recycled unmixed. Faeces should be sanitized before use in agriculture fields due to the presence of possible enteric pathogens. Composting of human faeces with food waste was evaluated as a possible method for this treatment. Temperatures were monitored in three 78-L wooden compost reactors fed with faeces-to-food waste substrates (F:FW) in wet weight ratios of 1:0, 3:1 and 1:1, which were observed for approximately 20 days. To achieve temperatures higher than 15 degrees C above ambient, insulation was required for the reactors. Use of 25-mm thick styrofoam insulation around the entire exterior of the compost reactors and turning of the compost twice a week resulted in sanitizing temperatures (>or=50 degrees C) to be maintained for 8 days in the F:FW=1:1 compost and for 4 days in the F:FW=3:1 compost. In these composts, a reduction of >3 log(10) for E. coli and >4 log(10) for Enterococcus spp. was achieved. The F:FW=1:0 compost, which did not maintain >or=50 degrees C for a sufficiently long period, was not sanitized, as the counts of E. coli and Enterococcus spp. increased between days 11 and 15. This research provides useful information on the design and operation of family-size compost units for the treatment of source-separated faeces and starchy food residues, most likely available amongst the less affluent rural/urban society in Uganda.     

Assessing coastal waters of American Samoa: territory-wide water quality data provide a critical “big-picture” view for this tropical archipelago

The coastal waters of American Samoa’s five high islands (Tutuila, Aunu’u, Ofu, Olosega, and Ta’u) were surveyed in 2004 using a probabilistic design. Water quality data were collected from the near-shore coastal habitat, defined as all near-shore coastal waters including embayments, extending out to 1/4 mile off-shore. Hydrography and water column samples were collected, and water quality data were compared to the Territorial water quality standards for pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), Enterococcus, chlorophyll a, water clarity, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus. All station measurements for pH, DO, and Enterococcus satisfied the local water quality standards, although some fraction of the Territory could not be assessed for either DO or Enterococcus. With respect to chlorophyll a, 66 ± 18% of Territory coastal waters complied with the standard, while 34 ± 18% failed to comply with the standard. For water clarity, 54 ± 18% of the Territorial waters complied with the standard while 42 ± 7% failed to comply. Territorial waters satisfied the standards for total nitrogen and phosphorus 72 ± 17% and 92 ± 10%, respectively. These data provide the first “big-picture” view of water quality in the near shore region around the high islands of American Samoa. While the picture is encouraging, these data suggest emerging water quality concerns.     

Vanadium recovery from oil fly ash by leaching, precipitation and solvent extraction processes

In order to reduce the environmental impact due to land disposal of oil fly ash from power plants and to valorize this waste material, the removal of vanadium was investigated using leaching processes (acidic and alkaline treatments), followed by a second step of metal recovery from leachates involving either solvent extraction or selective precipitation. Despite a lower leaching efficiency (compared to sulfuric acid), sodium hydroxide was selected for vanadium leaching since it is more selective for vanadium (versus other transition metals). Precipitation was preferred to solvent extraction for the second step in the treatment since: (a) it is more selective; enabling complete recovery of vanadate from the leachate in the form of pure ammonium vanadate; and (b) stripping of the loaded organic phase (in the solvent extraction process) was not efficient. Precipitation was performed in a two-step procedure: (a) aluminum was first precipitated at pH 8; (b) then ammonium chloride was added at pH 5 to bring about vanadium precipitation.     

Reusing fly ash in glass fibre reinforced cement: a new generation of high-quality GRC composites

New composite materials based on an alkali-resistant glass-fibre reinforced cement (AR-GRC) system are being developed by using fly ash (FA) produced at coal thermoelectric power plants, and fluid catalytic cracking catalyst residue (FC3R) from the petrol industry as cement replacement materials. These wastes are reactive from the pozzolanic viewpoint, and modify the nature and the microstructure of the cement matrix when a part of the Portland cement is replaced in the formulation of GRC. Several microstructural and mechanical aspects are being studied for AR-GRC systems. The behaviour of composites exposed to ageing shows that the pozzolanic activity of the ground FA added in high amounts and its mixture with the FC3R increase the flexural strength and no evidences of strength decay are observed. Additionally, the fibres due to the high alkalinity of the cementing matrix can be deteriorated. Fibres in the control (only Portland cement) and FC3R containing composites were attacked, whereas composites with FA and their mixture with FC3R show that the fibres have not been attacked, due to the pozzolanic activity of replacing materials that reduce the calcium hydroxide content in the cementing matrix.     

Waste polyvinylchloride derived pitch as a precursor to develop carbon fibers and activated carbon fibers

Polyvinylchloride (PVC) was successfully recycled through the solvent extraction from waste pipe with an extraction yield of ca. 86%. The extracted PVC was pyrolyzed by a two-stage process (260 and 410 degrees C) to obtain free-chlorine PVC based pitch through an effective removal of chlorine from PVC during the heat-treatment. As-prepared pitch (softening point: 220 degrees C) was spun, stabilized, carbonized into carbon fibers (CFs), and further activated into activated carbon fibers (ACFs) in a flow of CO2. As-prepared CFs show comparable mechanical properties to commercial CFs, whose maximum tensile strength and modulus are 862 MPa and 62 GPa, respectively. The resultant ACFs exhibit a high surface area of 1200 m2/g, narrow pore size distribution and a low oxygen content of 3%. The study provides an effective insight to recycle PVC from waste PVC and develop a carbon precursor for high performance carbon materials such as CFs and ACFs.     

Chromium(VI) resistance and removal by actinomycete strains isolated from sediments

Forty-one isolated actinomycetes were used to study qualitative and semi-quantitative screening of chromium(VI) resistance. Chromate-removing activity was estimated using the Cr(VI) specific colorimetric reagent 1,5-diphenylcarbazide. Twenty percent of the isolates from El Cadillal (EC) and 14% of isolates from a copper filter plant (CFP) were able to grow at 13 mM of Cr(VI). All isolates from sugar cane (SCP) could grow up to Cr(VI) concentration of 17 mM. EC, CFP and SCP strains were able to remove 24%, 30% and more than 40% of Cr(VI), respectively. The highest and lowest Cr(VI) specific removal values were 75.5 mg g(-1) cell by M3 (CFP), and 1.5 mg g(-1) cell by C35 (EC) strains. Eleven Cr(VI) resistant strains were characterized and identified as species of the genera Streptomyces (10) and Amycolatopsis (1). Differences on actinomycete community composition between contaminated and non-contaminated soil were found. This study showed the potential capacity of actinomycetes as tools for Cr(VI) bioremediation.