Safe use of refrigerants for process applications

This paper examines safety issues, with emphasis on central refrigeration plant for process applications. Plantroom hazards including refrigerant leakage, excess pressure, fire and noise are covered. It is concluded that routine surveys which are being conducted in connection with the chlorofluorocarbon and hydrochlorofluorocarbon phase-outs present an opportunity for examining safety issues.     

Control of upland bank erosion through tidal marsh construction on restored shores: Application in the maryland portion of Chesapeake Bay

During the period of 1972 through 1993, Environmental Concern Inc. (EC) and its recent (1989) affiliate Environmental Construction Company (ECC) have completed 216 marsh construction projects to control upland bank erosion in tributaries of the Maryland portion of Chesapeake Bay. Of these projects, 26 have involved marsh construction on unaltered existing shores and 190 have utilized marsh construction on shores that have been restored to former increased elevations through shoreline filling and grading. This paper describes the latter restoration technique. Throughout the 21-year period of applying the technique for long-term upland bank erosion control, refinements to the design standards and criteria for site suitability have been made so as to optimize its successful application. As a result of this experience, a reliable bioengineering restoration technique has evolved to control upland bank erosion. This paper describes the details of this successful technique through a review of: (1) its objectives and benefits, (2) suitability of sites for its application, (3) the design of its shore restoration, (4) its construction, (5) its maintenance, and (6) comparison of its cost with those of structural techniques for bank erosion control. Although the technique has only been applied in the Maryland portions of Chesapeake Bay, its applicability should, with modifications, be broadly applicable to all water bodies.     

Environmental site assessments and audits: Building inspection requirements

Environmental site assessment criteria were originally developed by organizations that focused, almost exclusively, on surface, subsurface, and pollution source contamination. Many of the hazards associated with indoor environments and building structures were traditionally not considered when evaluating sources and entities of environmental pollution. Since a large number of building materials are potentially hazardous, careful evaluation is necessary. Until recently, little information on building inspection requirements of environmental problems has been published. Traditionally, asbestos has been the main component of concern. The ever-changing environmental standards have dramatically expanded the scope of building surveys. Indoor environmental concerns, for example, currently include formaldehyde, lead-based paint, polychlorinated biphenyls, radon, and indoor air pollution. Environmental regulations are being expanded and developed that specifically include building structures. These regulatory standards are being triggered by an increased awareness of health effects from indoor exposure, fires, spills, and other accidents that have resulted in injury, death, and financial loss. This article discusses various aspects of assessments for building structures.     

Improving lake riparian source area management using surface and subsurface runoff indices

Sensitivity indices, which rank factors pertinent to surface and subsurface runoff pathways, were used to identify phosphorus source areas in riparian zones of 15 northern Minnesota lakes. Watershed models were first developed using a geographic information system (GIS). Empirical models were then developed correlating water quality with land use, lake morphometry, and riparian sensitivity. Base models of forested, cultivated, pasture/open, wetland and residential land use within 100, 200, 400, and 2000 m of the study lakes were regressed on total phosphorus and chlorophyll-a. Area-weighted groundwater and surface runoff sensitivity indices were then incorporated into each model and tested for significance. Within the 200-m buffer, the total phosphorus base model was improved by including the groundwater index alone. The chlorophyll-a base model at 200 m was improved by including: (1) the groundwater index alone, and (2) both the groundwater and surface runoff sensitivity indices. Results suggest that surface and subsurface runoff analysis of potential source areas can improve decision making for lake riparian management.     

Conducting effective audit conferences for improving environmental performance

Both opening and closing conferences are crucial elements of an effective environmental audit program. As many firms reengineer their auditing process, focusing on the beginning and end points of the on-site process makes eminent sense. This article discusses a variety of issues that often arise during the preparation and conduct of opening and closing conferences that can ultimately affect the success of the audit.     

Woodlot scale: A method for rapid assessment of woodlot values

A method is described for the rapid survey and determination of the ecological value of woodlots. The three dominant tree species in a stand are given a visual ranking that is converted to awoodlot index through the use of species adaptation values. The woodlot index is scaled by presettlement vegetation type to yield awoodlot scale. The ecologically most valuable woodlots in a region are identified by using the woodlot scale and data on woodlot area, human disturbance, and tree density. The woodlot index corresponds closely to results from conventional methods of woodlot surveys. This method should be valuable to land-use planners for environmental impact assessment and regional planning.     

The Worldwide Availability of Phosphate Rock

The US Bureau of Mines has investigated the resource potential of 201 phosphate mines and depositee in 28 market economy countries and 17 mines and deposits in the USSR and China. The 201 mines and deposits contain an estimated 34.2 billiong tonnes (t) of recoverable phosphate rock (at the demonstrated resource level), with Morocco and Western Sahara accounting for 61% (21 billion t) and with the USA accounting for 19% (6.4 billion t). The 17 mines and deposits evaluated in the USSR and China contain approximately 1.5 billion t of potentially recoverable phosphate rock. Potential annual capacity from low-cost, high-grade producing mines in the USA is estimated to decline significantly during the latter half of the next decade, and the US phosphate fertilizer industry will have to obtain phosphate rock by developing new, higher-cost, lower-grade mines or import phosphate rock to satisfy anticipated demand in the next century. Of the world's new production capacity that are likely to be developed over the next decade, slightly over one-third could be produced at an estimated 1981 cost of $40/t or less, and about two-thirds would cost in the $40 to $50 per tonne range (including a 15% rate of return). In comparison, most of the competing phosphate rock from producing mines in Morocco could be produced for less than $40/t.     

SIMULATION AND DECISIONMAKING: THE PLATTE RIVER BASIN IN NEBRASKA1

Substantial conflict exists over water management and allocation in the Platte River Basin of Nebraska. An interdisciplinary computer simulation model, representing the water quantity, water quality, environmental, and economic dimensions of the conflict, was developed in order to analyze the tradeoffs among allocation scenarios. Most importantly, decisionmakers and interest groups were involved in model development. Simulation results for a base case and two scenarios are presented. One scenario favors protection of instream flow for wildlife; the other favors water diversions for agriculture. Impacts of the instream flow scenario, as measured by the amount of land irrigated, groundwater levels, the amount of wildlife habitat for cranes and catfish, and net agricultural benefits did not differ greatly from those of the base case. However, impacts of the diversion scenario were substantial. On the negative side, instream flows and wildlife habitat declined an average of 39 percent; while, on the positive side, groundwater levels and net agricultural benefits each increased 6 percent. The modeling process was successful insofar as it promoted an understanding among the highly diverse interest groups of the systems nature of the Basin. One agreement on a water diversion schedule among three of the parties has been reached, partly as a result of this process. More comprehensive compromises have not yet been forged. Our experience, however, indicates that modeling success at the policymaking level depends more on the extent to which the policymakers understand the model than it does on model sophistication.     

Treatment of risk in environmental impact assessment

Risk assessment and environmental impact assessment have developed as separate traditions. While environmental impact assessment is a broad field that includes all activities that attempt to analyze and evaluate the effects of human and related actions on the environment, risk assessment has been concerned with the relatively well-defined regulatory problems and employs formal quantitative analysis of the probability of specific undesired events, such as cancer. Risk analytic approaches, particularly the explicit treatment of uncertainty, can significantly contribute to environmental assessments. This article discusses the type and sources of uncertainty in environmental assessments, techniques for their quantification, and ways to use uncertainty estimates to calculate probabilities of effects or probabilities of exceeding environmental standards and to determine the need for mitigation or additional research.This article was presented at the International Institute of Applied Systems Analysis, Task Force Meeting on Risk and Policy Analysis under Conditions of Uncertainty, Laxenburg, Austria, November 1985.     

Watershed factors affecting stream acidification in the White Mountains of New Hampshire,USA

The streams tributary to acidic Cone Pond, pH 4.5–4.8, and circumneutral Black Pond, pH 5.3–6.4, in the White Mountains of New Hampshire, USA, were monitored for a year. The watersheds of these two ponds were characterized in terms of geology and stream hydrology. Chemical gradients and patterns in rock weathering and groundwater discharge explain many of the differences in mineral content and acidity of the streams. The rocks of Black watershed produced an average of ten times the equivalent of basic cations as rocks from Cone watershed. This is on the same order as the difference in acidity of the two streams. Down-stream changes in stream chemistry follow differing patterns, but reflect the same principle of residence time and water path length controlling chemical evolution of streamwater. Watershed and aquatic managers may use these parameters in an inexpensive and simple assessment of the susceptibility of individual streams and ponds to acidification. A method is recommended to determine quickly the potential influence of bedrock type to aquatic chemistry.