Who's in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management

Stakeholder analysis means many things to different people. Various methods and approaches have been developed in different fields for different purposes, leading to confusion over the concept and practice of stakeholder analysis. This paper asks how and why stakeholder analysis should be conducted for participatory natural resource management research. This is achieved by reviewing the development of stakeholder analysis in business management, development and natural resource management. The normative and instrumental theoretical basis for stakeholder analysis is discussed, and a stakeholder analysis typology is proposed. This consists of methods for: i) identifying stakeholders; ii) differentiating between and categorising stakeholders; and iii) investigating relationships between stakeholders. The range of methods that can be used to carry out each type of analysis is reviewed. These methods and approaches are then illustrated through a series of case studies funded through the Rural Economy and Land Use (RELU) programme. These case studies show the wide range of participatory and non-participatory methods that can be used, and discuss some of the challenges and limitations of existing methods for stakeholder analysis. The case studies also propose new tools and combinations of methods that can more effectively identify and categorise stakeholders and help understand their inter-relationships.     

The kin recognition system of carpenter ants (Camponotus spp.)

Summary Hamilton's (1964) hypothesis linking haplodiploidy and eusociality in the Hymenoptera could be reconciled with the occurrence of polygyny and multiple insemination if workers are able to distinguish full (3/4 related) sisters from other familiar matri- and patrilines within the colony, and direct altruistic behavior toward them preferentially. We examined this possibility in small genetically mixed nests of the carpenter ant Camponotus floridanus, formed by the transfer of worker pupae from two unrelated source colonies. In 120 h of observation on 12 queenright and 12 queenless nests, more than 15,000 behavioral interactions were recorded. Workers antennated familiar nonkin significantly more frequently than familiar sisters. However, they failed to discriminate consistently between kin and non-kin in food exchanges and grooming. Aggressive behavior was occasionally observed in some queenless nests, but almost never in the presence of a queen. When aggression did occur, it was directed significantly more often toward non-kin. Though related adult workers did not cooperate preferentially, the biases in antennation and aggression do indicate an ability to discriminate familiar kin from familiar nonkin, which may be employed in other contexts such as the rearing of reproductive brood.     

Continuous determination of fine particulate matter mass in the Salt Lake City Environmental Monitoring project: a comparison of real-time and conventional TEOM monitor results

Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) mass was determined on a continuous basis at the Salt Lake City Environmental Protection Agency Environmental Monitoring for Public Awareness and Community Tracking monitoring site in Salt Lake City, UT, using three different monitoring techniques. Hourly averaged PM2.5 mass data were collected during two sampling periods (summer 2000 and winter 2002) using a real-time total ambient mass sampler (RAMS), sample equilibration system (SES)-tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM), and conventional TEOM monitor. This paper compares the results obtained from the various monitoring systems, which differ in their treatment of semivolatile material (SVM; particle-bound water, semivolatile ammonium nitrate, and semivolatile organic compounds). PM2.5 mass results obtained by the RAMS were consistently higher than those obtained by the SES-TEOM and conventional TEOM monitors because of the RAMS ability to measure semivolatile ammonium nitrate and semivolatile organic material but not particle-bound water. The SES-TEOM monitoring system was able to account for an average of 28% of the SVM, whereas the conventional TEOM monitor loses essentially all of the SVM from the single filter during sampling. Occasional mass readings by the various TEOM monitors that are higher than RAMS results may reflect particle-bound water, which, under some conditions, is measured by the TEOM but not the RAMS.     

Evaluation of the RAMS continuous monitor for determination of PM2.5 mass including semi-volatile material in Philadelphia,PA

The real-time ambient mass sampler (RAMS) is a continuous monitor based on particle concentrator, denuder, drier, and tapered element oscillating microbalance (TEOM) monitor technology. It is designed to measure PM2.5 mass, including the semi-volatile species NH4NO3 and semi-volatile organic material, but not to measure PM2.5 water content. The performance of the RAMS in an urban environment with high humidity was evaluated during the July 1999 NARSTO-Northeast Oxidant and Particles Study (NEOPS) intensive study at the Baxter water treatment plant in Philadelphia, PA. The results obtained with the RAMS were compared to mass measurements made with a TEOM monitor and to constructed mass obtained with a Particle Concentrator-Brigham Young University Organic Sampling System (PC-BOSS) sampler designed to determine the chemical composition of fine particles, including the semi-volatile species. An average of 28% of the fine particulate material present during the study was semi-volatile organic material lost from a filter during particle collection, and 1% was NH4NO3 that was also lost from the particles during sampling. The remaining mass was dominantly nonvolatile (NH4)2SO4 (31%) and organic material (37%), with minor amounts of soot, crustal material, and nonvolatile NH4NO3. Comparison of the RAMS and PC-BOSS results indicated that the RAMS correctly monitored for fine particulate mass, including the semivolatile material. In contrast, the heated filter of the TEOM monitor did not measure the semi-volatile material. The comparison of the RAMS and PC-BOSS data had a precision of +/-4.1 microg/m3 (+/-9.6%). The precision of the RAMS data was limited by the uncertainty in the blank correction for the reversible adsorption of water by the charcoal-impregnated cellulose sorbent filter of the RAMS monitor. The precision of the measurement of fine particulate components by the PC-BOSS was +/-6-8%.     

Willingness to pay to improve domestic water supply in rural areas of Central Tanzania: Implications for policy

This analysis estimates willingness to pay to improve community-based rural water utilities in the Dodoma and Singida Regions of Central Tanzania, using Multinomial Logit functions. An estimate of willingness to pay provides an indication of the demand for improved services and potential for them being sustainable. Surveys were conducted in a total of 30 villages in the two regions. In the Dodoma Region, about 14% of respondents indicated that they were satisfied with the status quo, 64% suggested increasing water discharge and watering points, and 22% proposed other improvements relating to water quality. In the Singida Region, 31% of the respondents were satisfied with the status quo, 59% wanted deeper boreholes and watering points, and 10% indicated other types of improvement relating to water quality. The Multinomial Logit functions indicated that the interaction between the water quality variable and proposed bids were important in making choices with reference to the type of improvement desired. Respondents who wanted to increase water supply in Dodoma Region were willing to pay 32 Tsh above the existing tariff of 20 Tsh/bucket. In the Singida Region, the analogous amount was 91 Tsh per household per year above the existing user fee of 508 Tsh per household per year. If the tariff or user fees have to be increased, the estimated average potential revenue for the surveyed villages was 252 million Tsh/year (US$265 263) in the Dodoma Region, and 5.2 million Tsh/year (US$5474) in the Singida Region. In the future, strategic planning is needed to ensure that improvements proposed potentially improve cost recovery initiatives and increase the level of consumer satisfaction. Also, care will be needed to ensure that more disadvantaged community members do not suffer unduly from increases in tariff or user fees.     

Identification and mapping of heavy metal pollution in soils of a sports ground in Galway City,Ireland, using a portable XRF analyser and GIS

Heavy metals in urban soils continue to attract attention because of their potential long-term effects on human health. During a previous investigation of urban soils in Galway City, Ireland, a pollution hotspot of Pb, Cu, Zn and As was identified in the sports ground of South Park in the Claddagh. The sports ground was formerly a rubbish dumping site for both municipal and industrial wastes. In the present study, a portable X-ray fluorescence (PXRF) analyser was used to obtain rapid in-situ elemental analyses of the topsoil (depth: about 5–10 cm) at 200 locations on a 20 × 20-m grid in South Park. Extremely high values of the pollutants were found, with maximum values of Pb, Zn, Cu and As of 10,297, 24,716, 2224 and 744 mg/kg soil, respectively. High values occur particularly where the topsoil cover is thin, whereas lower values were found in areas where imported topsoil covers the polluted substrate. Geographic Information Systems (GIS) techniques were applied to the dataset to create elemental spatial distribution maps, three-dimensional images and interpretive hazard maps of the pollutants in the study area. Immediate action to remediate the contaminated topsoil is recommended to safeguard the health of children who play at the sports ground.     

Robust, comparable population metrics through collaborative photo-monitoring of whale sharks Rhincodon typus.

The formulation of conservation policy for species that are rare and migratory requires broad cooperation to ensure that adequate levels of standardized data collection are achieved and that the results of local analyses are comparable. Estimates of apparent survival rate, relative change in abundance, and proportions of newly marked and returning individuals can inform local management decisions while highlighting corresponding changes at other linked research stations. We have applied computer-assisted photo-identification and mark-recapture population modeling to whale sharks Rhincodon typus at Ningaloo Marine Park (NMP), Western Australia, to create a baseline trend for comparison with other regional aggregations of the species. We estimate several ecological parameters of interest, including an average apparent survival rate of 0.55 yr(-1) for sharks newly marked (new) and 0.83 yr(-1) for sharks captured in multiple seasons (philopatric). The average proportion of philopatric sharks is found to be 0.65 of the total population, and we derive an average population growth rate of 1.12 yr(-1) for them. Our analysis uncovered significant heterogeneity in capture and survival probabilities in this study population; our chosen model structures and data analysis account for these influences and demonstrate a good overall fit to the time-series data. The results show good correspondence between capture probability and an available measure of recapture effort, suggesting that unmodeled systematic effects contribute insignificantly to the model fits. We find no evidence of a decline in the whale shark population at NMP, and our results provide metrics of value to their future management. Overall, our study suggests an effective approach to analyzing and modeling mark-recapture data for a rare species using computer-assisted photo-identification and opportunistic data collection from ecotourism to ensure the quality and volume of data required for population analysis.