WASTE MANAGEMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA

Waste management is emerging as a key sector for sustainable development in South Africa with opportunities for enhancing investments in carbon credits that target reduction of methane from landfills and moveable assets in relation to environmentally sound equipment required for effective waste management. In the past, the waste management sector was dominated by private sector with selective operations in what makes business sense through recycling of saleable products. Materials mostly recycled included paper and hard board, plastics, glass, tinplate and aluminum. The rest of the waste materials estimated at 10.2 million tons of both general and hazardous end up in landfills. This trend is now getting reversed as development agencies such as Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit Gmbh (GTZ), Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA), Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED) and Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) are identifying opportunities in the sector for sustainable development purposes. Two key areas for investments include capturing methane emissions from landfills for trading in carbon markets and financing both physical and moveable assets to enhance sustainable development. However, the challenges for cost-effectiveness, efficiency and sustainability in the sector prevail in relation to lack of sound knowledge to design and implement integrated programmes that incorporate environment, development and sustainability. Also, inadequate capacity at municipal levels to administer waste management programmes and inability to collect rates and taxes for effective management of landfills constraint effectiveness and efficiency of the sector. Overall, financial resources are imperative to waste management and sustainable development as the sector requires capital investments for necessary infrastructure.     

Use of Multispecies Occupancy Models to Evaluate the Response of Bird Communities to Forest Degradation Associated with Logging

Forest degradation is arguably the greatest threat to biodiversity, ecosystem services, and rural livelihoods. Therefore, increasing understanding of how organisms respond to degradation is essential for management and conservation planning. We were motivated by the need for rapid and practical analytical tools to assess the influence of management and degradation on biodiversity and system state in areas subject to rapid environmental change. We compared bird community composition and size in managed (ejido, i.e., communally owned lands) and unmanaged (national park) forests in the Sierra Tarahumara region, Mexico, using multispecies occupancy models and data from a 2‐year breeding bird survey. Unmanaged sites had on average higher species occupancy and richness than managed sites. Most species were present in low numbers as indicated by lower values of detection and occupancy associated with logging‐induced degradation. Less than 10% of species had occupancy probabilities >0.5, and degradation had no positive effects on occupancy. The estimated metacommunity size of 125 exceeded previous estimates for the region, and sites with mature trees and uneven‐aged forest stand characteristics contained the highest species richness. Higher estimation uncertainty and decreases in richness and occupancy for all species, including habitat generalists, were associated with degraded young, even‐aged stands. Our findings show that multispecies occupancy methods provide tractable measures of biodiversity and system state and valuable decision support for landholders and managers. These techniques can be used to rapidly address gaps in biodiversity information, threats to biodiversity, and vulnerabilities of species of interest on a landscape level, even in degraded or fast‐changing environments. Moreover, such tools may be particularly relevant in the assessment of species richness and distribution in a wide array of habitats. Uso de Modelos de Ocupación para Múltiples Especies para Evaluar la Respuesta de las Comunidades de Aves a la Degradación de Bosques Asociada con la Tala     

Terrestrial Reserve Networks Do Not Adequately Represent Aquatic Ecosystems

Abstract: Protected areas are a cornerstone of conservation and have been designed largely around terrestrial features. Freshwater species and ecosystems are highly imperiled, but the effectiveness of existing protected areas in representing freshwater features is poorly known. Using the inland waters of Michigan as a test case, we quantified the coverage of four key freshwater features (wetlands, riparian zones, groundwater recharge, rare species) within conservation lands and compared these with representation of terrestrial features. Wetlands were included within protected areas more often than expected by chance, but riparian zones were underrepresented across all (GAP 1–3) protected lands, particularly for headwater streams and large rivers. Nevertheless, within strictly protected lands (GAP 1–2), riparian zones were highly represented because of the contribution of the national Wild and Scenic Rivers Program. Representation of areas of groundwater recharge was generally proportional to area of the reserve network within watersheds, although a recharge hotspot associated with some of Michigan's most valued rivers is almost entirely unprotected. Species representation in protected areas differed significantly among obligate aquatic, wetland, and terrestrial species, with representation generally highest for terrestrial species and lowest for aquatic species. Our results illustrate the need to further evaluate and address the representation of freshwater features within protected areas and the value of broadening gap analysis and other protected‐areas assessments to include key ecosystem processes that are requisite to long‐term conservation of species and ecosystems. We conclude that terrestrially oriented protected‐area networks provide a weak safety net for aquatic features, which means complementary planning and management for both freshwater and terrestrial conservation targets is needed.     

Tijuana Childhood Lead Risk Assessment Revisited: Validating a GIS Model with Environmental Data

The objective of this research was to determine the spatial distributions of childhood lead poisoning and soil lead contamination in urban Tijuana. The Bocco–Sanchez model of point-source emissions was evaluated in terms of validity and reliability. We compared the model's predicted vulnerable populations with observed cases of childhood lead poisoning in Tijuana, identified fixed point sources in the field, and analyzed 76 soil samples from 14 sites. The soil lead results were compared to the blood lead analyses performed on Tijuana children whose blood lead levels were ≥10 μg/dL, who reported that they did not use lead-glazed ceramics for cooking or storing food (n = 63). Using GIS, predicted vs observed risk areas were assessed by examining spatial patterns, including the distribution of cases per designated risk area. Chi-square analysis of expected vs observed values did not differ significantly at the p = 0.02 level, showing that the model was strikingly accurate in predicting the distribution of subjects with elevated blood lead. Results reveal that while point sources are significant, other sources of lead exposure are also important. The relative public health risk from exposure to lead in an urban setting may be assessed by distinguishing among sources of exposure and associating concentrations to blood lead levels. The results represent an iterative approach in environmental health research by linking environmental and human biomarker lead concentrations and using these results to validate an environmental model of risk to lead exposure.     

Biological Effects of Fine Sediment in the Lotic Environment

/ Although sedimentation is a naturally occurring phenomenon inrivers, land-use changes have resulted in an increase in anthropogenicallyinduced fine sediment deposition. Poorly managed agricultural practices,mineral extraction, and construction can result in an increase in suspendedsolids and sedimentation in rivers and streams, leading to a decline inhabitat quality. The nature and origins of fine sediments in the loticenvironment are reviewed in relation to channel and nonchannel sources andthe impact of human activity. Fine sediment transport and deposition areoutlined in relation to variations in streamflow and particle sizecharacteristics. A holistic approach to the problems associated with finesediment is outlined to aid in the identification of sediment sources,transport, and deposition processes in the river catchment. The multiplecauses and deleterious impacts associated with fine sediments on riverinehabitats, primary producers, macroinvertebrates, and fisheries are identifiedand reviewed to provide river managers with a guide to source material. Therestoration of rivers with fine sediment problems are discussed in relationto a holistic management framework to aid in the planning and undertaking ofmitigation measures within both the river channel and surrounding catchmentarea.KEY WORDS: Sedimentation; Fine sediment; Holistic approach; Ecologicalimpact; River restoration     

Safeguarding Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in the Little Karoo,South Africa

Abstract: Global declines in biodiversity and the widespread degradation of ecosystem services have led to urgent calls to safeguard both. Responses to this urgency include calls to integrate the needs of ecosystem services and biodiversity into the design of conservation interventions. The benefits of such integration are purported to include improvements in the justification and resources available for these interventions. Nevertheless, additional costs and potential trade‐offs remain poorly understood in the design of interventions that seek to conserve biodiversity and ecosystem services. We sought to investigate the synergies and trade‐offs in safeguarding ecosystem services and biodiversity in South Africa's Little Karoo. We used data on three ecosystem services—carbon storage, water recharge, and fodder provision—and data on biodiversity to examine several conservation planning scenarios. First, we investigated the amount of each ecosystem service captured incidentally by a conservation plan to meet targets for biodiversity only while minimizing opportunity costs. We then examined the costs of adding targets for ecosystem services into this conservation plan. Finally, we explored trade‐offs between biodiversity and ecosystem service targets at a fixed cost. At least 30% of each ecosystem service was captured incidentally when all of biodiversity targets were met. By including data on ecosystem services, we increased the amount of services captured by at least 20% for all three services without additional costs. When biodiversity targets were reduced by 8%, an extra 40% of fodder provision and water recharge were obtained and 58% of carbon could be captured for the same cost. The opportunity cost (in terms of forgone production) of safeguarding 100% of the biodiversity targets was about US$500 million. Our results showed that with a small decrease in biodiversity target achievement, substantial gains for the conservation of ecosystem services can be achieved within our biodiversity priority areas for no extra cost.     

Unintentional Wildlife Poisoning and Proposals for Sustainable Management of Rodents

In Europe, bromadiolone, an anticoagulant rodenticide authorized for plant protection, may be applied intensively in fields to control rodents. The high level of poisoning of wildlife that follows such treatments over large areas has been frequently reported. In France, bromadiolone has been used to control water voles (Arvicola terrestris) since the 1980s. Both regulation and practices of rodent control have evolved during the last 15 years to restrict the quantity of poisoned bait used by farmers. This has led to a drastic reduction of the number of cases of poisoned wildlife reported by the French surveillance network SAGIR. During the autumn and winter 2011, favorable weather conditions and high vole densities led to the staging of several hundreds of Red Kites (Milvus milvus) in the Puy‐de‐Dôme department (central France). At the same time, intensive treatments with bromadiolone were performed in this area. Although no misuse has been mentioned by the authorities following controls, 28 Red Kites and 16 Common Buzzards (Buteo buteo) were found dead during surveys in November and December 2011. For all these birds, poisoning by bromadiolone as the main cause of death was either confirmed or highly suspected. Other observations suggest a possible impact of bromadiolone on the breeding population of Red Kites in this area during the spring 2011. French regulation of vole control for plant protection is currently under revision, and we believe this event calls for more sustainable management of rodent outbreaks. Based on large‐scale experiments undertaken in eastern France, we propose that direct control of voles at low density (with trapping or limited chemical treatments) and mechanical destruction of vole tunnels, mole control, landscape management, and predator fostering be included in future regulation because such practices could help resolve conservation and agricultural issues. Envenenamiento No Intencional de Fauna Silvestre y Propuestas para un Manejo Sustentable de Roedores.     

Modeling Effectiveness of Gradual Increases in Source Level to Mitigate Effects of Sonar on Marine Mammals

Ramp‐up or soft‐start procedures (i.e., gradual increase in the source level) are used to mitigate the effect of sonar sound on marine mammals, although no one to date has tested whether ramp‐up procedures are effective at reducing the effect of sound on marine mammals. We investigated the effectiveness of ramp‐up procedures in reducing the area within which changes in hearing thresholds can occur. We modeled the level of sound killer whales (Orcinus orca) were exposed to from a generic sonar operation preceded by different ramp‐up schemes. In our model, ramp‐up procedures reduced the risk of killer whales receiving sounds of sufficient intensity to affect their hearing. The effectiveness of the ramp‐up procedure depended strongly on the assumed response threshold and differed with ramp‐up duration, although extending the duration of the ramp up beyond 5 min did not add much to its predicted mitigating effect. The main factors that limited effectiveness of ramp up in a typical antisubmarine warfare scenario were high source level, rapid moving sonar source, and long silences between consecutive sonar transmissions. Our exposure modeling approach can be used to evaluate and optimize mitigation procedures. Modelado de la Efectividad de los Incrementos Graduales en el Nivel de la Fuente para Mitigar Efectos de Sonar sobre Mamíferos Marinos     

Land‐Cover Change and Avian Diversity in the Conterminous United States

Abstract: Changes in land use and land cover have affected and will continue to affect biological diversity worldwide. Yet, understanding the spatially extensive effects of land‐cover change has been challenging because data that are consistent over space and time are lacking. We used the U.S. National Land Cover Dataset Land Cover Change Retrofit Product and North American Breeding Bird Survey data to examine land‐cover change and its associations with diversity of birds with principally terrestrial life cycles (landbirds) in the conterminous United States. We used mixed‐effects models and model selection to rank associations by ecoregion. Land cover in 3.22% of the area considered in our analyses changed from 1992 to 2001, and changes in species richness and abundance of birds were strongly associated with land‐cover changes. Changes in species richness and abundance were primarily associated with changes in nondominant types of land cover, yet in many ecoregions different types of land cover were associated with species richness than were associated with abundance. Conversion of natural land cover to anthropogenic land cover was more strongly associated with changes in bird species richness and abundance than persistence of natural land cover in nearly all ecoregions and different covariates were most strongly associated with species richness than with abundance in 11 of 17 ecoregions. Loss of grassland and shrubland affected bird species richness and abundance in forested ecoregions. Loss of wetland was associated with bird abundance in forested ecoregions. Our findings highlight the value of understanding changes in nondominant land cover types and their association with bird diversity in the United States.