Measuring Inorganic and Alkyl Lead Emissions from Stationary Sources

Described are the results from studies done to provide test methods for state and local air pollution control agencies to measure accurately the lead emissions from stationary source stacks as required in the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for Lead. Separate test methods were developed for measuring inorganic lead and alkyl lead compounds. Inorganic lead is collected in a standard particulate sampling train, digested with 50% (V/V) nitric acid and 3% hydrogen peroxide and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. Alkyl lead compounds are collected in iodine monochloride and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry without prior solvent extraction. Standard solutions of inorganic lead in dilute nitric acid are used to calibrate the spectrophotometer in both methods. The inorganic lead test method was evaluated using baghouse dust samples from a primary copper and a primary lead smelter and stack samples from a lead recovery furnace, a primary battery manufacturing plant, a gray iron foundry and a secondary lead smelter. The alkyl lead method was evaluated using alkyl lead motor mix fluids and samples from an alkyl lead manufacturing plant vent stack.     

Development of a 24-Hour Method for Analysis of SO2 and CO2 from Electric Utility Units Equipped with Flue Gas Desulfurization Scrubbers

A procedure was developed for the 24-h determination of SO₂ and CO₂ in effluent gas from fossil fuel combustion sources. Laboratory experiments were conducted to test absorption of SO₂ in hydrogen peroxide solution and absorption of CO₂ by sodium hydroxide on an inert substrate at expected ambient temperatures of 15 to 45°C. Isopropyl alcohol cannot be used to trap sulfuric acid and particulates because it permeates the sampling train and prevents complete absorption of CO₂. Elemental analysis of stack particulates revealed that at least 31 elements were present. Iron and other elements interfered with SO₂ analysis. These particulates were completely removed by a heated borosilicate glass filter. Both laboratory and field experiments showed that molecular sieves are a promising alternative for CO₂ absorption. Statistical evaluation of data collected at three units equipped with flue gas desulfurization scrubbers proved that the new procedure is accurate and precise.     

Fertilizer source and tillage effects on yield-scaled nitrous oxide emissions in a corn cropping system

Management practices such as fertilizer or tillage regime may affect nitrous oxide (N?O) emissions and crop yields, each of which is commonly expressed with respect to area (e.g., kg N ha or Mg grain ha). Expressing N?O emissions per unit of yield can account for both of these management impacts and might provide a useful metric for greenhouse gas inventories by relating N?O emissions to grain production rates. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of long-term (>17 yr) tillage treatments and N fertilizer source on area- and yield-scaled N?O emissions, soil N intensity, and nitrogen use efficiency for rainfed corn ( L.) in Minnesota over three growing seasons. Two different controlled-release fertilizers (CRFs) and conventional urea (CU) were surface-applied at 146 kg N ha(-1) several weeks after planting to conventional tillage (CT) and no-till (NT) treatments. Yield-scaled emissions across all treatments represented 0.4 to 1.1% of the N harvested in the grain. Both CRFs reduced soil nitrate intensity, but not N?O emissions, compared with CU. One CRF, consisting of nitrification and urease inhibitors added to urea, decreased N?O emissions compared with a polymer-coated urea (PCU). The PCU tended to have lower yields during the drier years of the study, which increased its yield-scaled N?O emissions. The overall effectiveness of CRFs compared with CU in this study may have been reduced because they were applied several weeks after corn was planted. Across all N treatments, area-scaled N?O emissions were not significantly affected by tillage. However, when expressed per unit yield of grain, grain N, or total aboveground N, N?O emissions with NT were 52, 66, and 69% greater, respectively, compared with CT. Thus, in this cropping system and climate regime, production of an equivalent amount of grain using NT would generate substantially more N?O compared with CT.     

Quantifying the influence of environmental and water conservation attitudes on household end use water consumption

Within the research field of urban water demand management, understanding the link between environmental and water conservation attitudes and observed end use water consumption has been limited. Through a mixed method research design incorporating field-based smart metering technology and questionnaire surveys, this paper reveals the relationship between environmental and water conservation attitudes and a domestic water end use break down for 132 detached households located in Gold Coast city, Australia. Using confirmatory factor analysis, attitudinal factors were developed and refined; households were then categorised based on these factors through cluster analysis technique. Results indicated that residents with very positive environmental and water conservation attitudes consumed significantly less water in total and across the behaviourally influenced end uses of shower, clothes washer, irrigation and tap, than those with moderately positive attitudinal concern. The paper concluded with implications for urban water demand management planning, policy and practice.     

Development of injury criteria for pelvic fracture in frontal crashes

OBJECTIVE: This article assesses the position-dependent injury tolerance of the hip in the frontal direction based on testing of eight postmortem human subjects. METHODS: For each subject, the left and right hemipelvis complex was axially loaded using a previously developed test configuration. Six positions were defined from a seated femur neutral condition, combining flexed, neutral, and extended femur positions with abducted, neutral, and adducted positions. RESULTS: Axial injury tolerances based on peak force were found to be 6,850 +/- 840 N in the extended, neutral position and 4,080 +/- 830 N in the flexed, neutral position. From the flexed neutral orientation, the peak axial force increased 18% for 20 degrees abduction and decreased 6% for 20 degrees adduction. From the extended, neutral orientation, the peak axial force decreased 4% for 20 degrees abduction and decreased 3% for 20 degrees adduction. However, as there is evidence that increases in loading may occur after the initiation of fracture, the magnitude of the peak force is likely related to the extent of injury, not to the initial tolerance. Using the axial femur force at the initiation of fracture (assessed with acoustic crack sensors) as a potentially more relevant indicator of injury may lower the existing injury criteria. This fracture initiation force varied by position from 3,010 +/- 560 N in the flexed, neutral position to 5,470 N in the extended, abducted position. Further, there was a large position-dependent variation in the ratio of fracture initiation force to the peak axial force. The initiation of fracture was 83% of the peak axial force in the extended, abducted position, but the ratio was 34% in the extended, adducted position. CONCLUSIONS: This may have significant implications for the development of pelvic injury criteria by automobile designers attempting to mitigate pelvis injuries.     

Fine-scale,spatial and temporal assessment methods for feral swine disturbances to sensitive plant communities in south-central Florida

Feral swine are estimated to annually cost hundreds of millions of dollars in economic loss to property and agriculture in the USA, while their ecological consequences remain largely unmeasured. Using submeter-accurate Global Positioning System technology over a multiyear project, we are quantifying in a novel way the spatial and temporal attributes of swine rooting damage within 587 ha of ecologically sensitive wetland plant communities at Avon Park Air Force Range in south-central Florida. We delineated damage polygons from 0.0023 to 4,335 m² and were able to document recurrent damage through time at most sites during each assessment. For each polygon, we also estimated the age of damage and assigned to it a severity index, qualities of the rooting in which we detected changes in proportions over time. Spatially explicit damage assessments at fine scales conducted over several years can assist land managers in determining effects of rooting on rare plant populations, and will allow investigators to hypothesize what factors are driving patterns of this disturbance across ecologically sensitive plant communities.     

Behavior and lifestyle characteristics of male Kuwaiti drivers

Introduction: The high traffic accident risk among young drivers is a well-known and well-documented fact in most countries. Lifestyle has proven to affect driving behavior as well as accident risk. This study covers the lifestyle component of the problems related to young male Kuwaiti drivers’ accident risk. Methods: The purpose of the study is to measure the relationship between lifestyle and accident risk. Lifestyle is measured through a questionnaire, where 302 male Kuwaiti drivers (mean age = 28 years; range 25-35 years) answer 39 questions related to behavioral and social factors, road conditions, police enforcement, and life satisfaction. They also report their involvement in accidents and traffic violations. Results: The questionnaire's validity and reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.7) were achieved. Principal component analysis reduced the 39 items on the questionnaire to 5 factors. Inadequate police enforcement is strongly correlated (r = 0.862) to accident risk and traffic violations and is thus considered the best predictor of traffic accidents in Kuwait. Impact on Industry: As driving-related incidents (on-the-job and off-the-job) are a significant source of fatalities and lost-work-days, the study points to the importance of considering cultural factors in the design of comprehensive safety programs for industry.     

Evaluation of Canisters for Measuring Emissions of Volatile Organic Air Pollutants from Hazardous Waste Incineration

Regulation to control air emissions of toxic organic compounds require the collection and analysis of effluent gas from low level sources such as hazardous waste incinerators. The standard SW- 846 Method specifies the use of Tenax and Tenax/charcoal adsorbent traps for collection of volatile organics from incinerators. This study evaluates passivated stainless steel canisters as an alternative to adsorbent traps to eliminate some of the problems associated with adsorbent sampling. Initially the stability of 18 nonpolar, volatile organic compounds was determined in Summa-treated stainless steel canisters with greater than 100 ppmv HCI and saturated with water vapor. All 18 components were stable for a twoweek period; however, an Interference caused a 10-fold increase In the FID response of trlchloroethylene, toluene, and chlorobenzene. No Interference of the ECD response was found for any of the 11 compounds detected with the ECD including trlchloroethylene. A pilot scale incinerator was sampled using canisters, and the destruction efficiency of 1,1,1-trichloroethane was determined at a concentration of less than 0.5 ppbv while determining 1,1-dichloroethylene, the major product of Incomplete combustion, at a concentration of 8000 ppbv from the same sample.     

Chromium Analysis at a Ferrochrome Smelter,a Chemical Plant and a Refractory Brick Plant

Techniques were developed to sample and analyze the Cr content of participate samples with emphasis on determining the concentration of the carcinogen Cr⁺⁶. Cr⁺⁶ is extracted to alkaline solution and analyzed colorimetrically. Residual particles are extracted with acid solution to remove soluble Cr⁺³, which is determined by atomic absorption spectrometry. This methodology was tested on samples from three diverse types of sources: a ferrochrome smelter, a chemical plant, and a refractory brick plant. Identical quadruplicate samples were collected to determine accuracy and precision of the collection and analysis procedures, and extraction of Cr⁺⁶ and Cr⁺³. A statistical analysis revealed that the precision of Cr⁺⁶ analysis is comparable to that of the particulate mass determination. The stability of Cr⁺⁶ In particulate form and in solution was determined. Size resolved particulate samples were collected to determine the particle size versus the Cr⁺⁶ content. At the ferrochrome smelter and the chemical plant the majority of the Cr⁺⁶ was contained in the respirable particles. The accuracy and completeness of the chemical methods employed were verified by neutron activation analysis, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopyenergy dispersive x-ray analysis.