The European Water Framework Directive: Water Quality Classification and Implications to Engineering Planning

The European Water framework directive (WFD) is probably the most important environmental management directive that has been enacted over the last decade in the European Union. The directive aims at achieving an overall good ecological status in all European water bodies. In this article, we discuss the implementation steps of the WFD and their implications for environmental engineering practice while focusing on rivers as the main receiving waters. Arising challenges for engineers and scientists are seen in the quantitative assessment of water quality, where standardized systems are needed to estimate the biological status. This is equally of concern in engineering planning, where the prediction of ecological impacts is required. Studies dealing with both classification and prediction of the ecological water quality are reviewed. Further, the combined emission–water quality approach is discussed. Common understanding of this combined approach is to apply the most stringent of either water quality or emission standard to a certain case. In contrast, for example, the Austrian water act enables the application of only the water quality based approach - at least on a temporary basis.     

Preparation and characterization of polycaprolactone nanocapsules containing pretilachlor as a herbicide nanocarrier

Polycaprolactone nanocapsules (PCL) containing pretilachlor were prepared, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and transmission electron microscopy were used for their structural and morphological investigations. The results revealed that the nanocapsules had irregular shape and their particles size was in the range of 70–200 nm. The encapsulation efficiency of pretilachlor was measured as 99.5 ± 1.3% using high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. The physicochemical stability studies over 60 days showed that the nanocapsules were stable in the suspension without any aggregation. The herbicide activity was examined in a pre-emergence manner using barnyard grass as a target plant and rice as a non-target plant. The nanoformulation had no negative effect on rice plant. However, its effect on barnyard grass was significant. The cytotoxicity analysis indicated that the nanocapsulated herbicide is less toxic rather than the commercial formulation. Therefore, encapsulation of pretilachlor in PCL nanocapsules can be used effectively to construct environmentally friendly PCL-herbicide systems in agriculture.

     

Pelvic restraint cushion sled test evaluation of pelvic forward motion

Objective: This study was designed to evaluate the performance of a pelvic restraint cushion (PRC), a submarining countermeasure that deploys under the thighs when a crash is detected in order to block the forward motion of the pelvis.

Methods: Sled tests approximating low- and high-speed frontal impacts were conducted with 4 female postmortem human subjects (PMHS) restrained by a lap and shoulder belt in the right front passenger seat. The subjects were tested with and without a PRC.

Results: The PRC is effective in reducing forward motion of the PMHS pelvis and reduces the risk of injury due to lap belt loading in a high-speed frontal crash.

Conclusions: Although small sample size limits the utility of the study's findings, the results suggest that the PRC can limit pelvic forward motion and that pelvic injury due to PRC deployment is not likely.     

Environmental injustice and flood risk: a conceptual model and case comparison of metropolitan Miami and Houston,USA

Regional Environmental Change - This article outlines a conceptual model and comparatively applies it to results from environmental justice (EJ) studies of flood risk in the Miami, Florida, and...     

Laboratory investigation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Fallopia</Emphasis> × <Emphasis Type="Italic">bohemica</Emphasis> fruits dispersal by watercourses

Seed and fruit dispersal along watercourses favours the long-distance migration of invasive species, not only for aquatic or wetland species, but also for terrestrial wind-dispersed plants, like the Japanese knotweed. The present paper aims at investigating the role of watercourses in the dispersal of the knotweed due to its frequent occurrence on riverbanks and production of fertile achenes (type of fruit of the Japanese knotweed). This dispersal occurs along two steps after the fruits deposit on the water surface: floatation first and then sinking towards the bottom of the watercourse. Regarding the first step, the effects of agitation of the water, temperature, surface tension and luminosity on the achenes floatability are experimentally studied. While no influence of luminosity is observed, an increase of temperature greatly decreases the floating time. Floating time also decreases as the contact between water and the fruit is enhanced (through submersion of achenes, agitation of the water or lower surface tension). Regarding the second step, the fall velocity of the fruits in water at rest is measured and appears to be independent of the seed history (floating time). 3D helical motions are systematically observed with constant tangential velocity with respect to the falling velocity. The trajectory of the fruits in a shear flow is then measured and the evolution of their velocity components along the sinking process is discussed. Finally, the contribution of both steps to the long-distance migration of the seeds is estimated.     

Revising REACH guidance on information requirements and chemical safety assessment for engineered nanomaterials for aquatic ecotoxicity endpoints: recommendations from the EnvNano project

The European Chemical Agency (ECHA) is in the process of revising its guidance documents on how to address the challenges of ecotoxicological testing of nanomaterials. In these revisions, outset is taken in the hypothesis that ecotoxicological test methods, developed for soluble chemicals, can be made applicable to nanomaterials. European Research Council project EnvNano—Environmental Effects and Risk Evaluation of Engineered, which ran from 2011 to 2016, took another outset by assuming that: “The behaviour of nanoparticles in suspension is fundamentally different from that of chemicals in solution”. The aim of this paper is to present the findings of the EnvNano project and through these provide the scientific background for specific recommendations on how ECHA guidance could be further improved. Key EnvNano findings such as the need to characterize dispersion and dissolution rates in stock and test media have partially been addressed in the updated guidance. However, it has to be made clear that multiple characterization methods have to be applied to describe state of dispersion and dissolution over time and for various test concentration. More detailed information is called for on the specific characterization methods and techniques available and their pros and cons. Based on findings in EnvNano, we recommend that existing algal tests are supplemented with tests where suspensions of nanomaterials are aged for 1–3 days for nanomaterials that dissolve in testing media. Likewise, for daphnia tests we suggest to supplement with tests where (a) exposure is shortened to a 3 h pulse exposure in daphnia toxicity tests with environmentally hazardous metal and metal oxide nanomaterials prone to dissolution; and (b) food abundance is three to five times higher than normal, respectively. We further suggest that the importance of considering the impact of shading in algal tests is made more detailed in the guidance and that it is specified that determination of uptake, depuration and trophic transfer of nanomaterials for each commercialized functionalization of the nanomaterials is required. Finally, as an outcome of the project a method for assessing the regulatory adequacy of ecotoxicological studies of nanomaterials is proposed.     

Corrosion-induced release of Cu and Zn into rainwater from brass, bronze and their pure metals. A 2-year field study

A 2-year field study has been conducted in an urban environment to provide annual release rates of copper and zinc from brass (20 wt% Zn) and copper and tin from bronze (6 wt% Sn) compared to sheets of their pure alloy constituents, copper and zinc. Despite relatively low nominal bulk alloy content, substantially more zinc was released from brass compared to copper. Both metals were released at a significantly slower rate from the brass alloy, compared to the pure metals. The proportion of release rates of copper and zinc from the alloy differed significantly from their proportions in the bulk alloy. Bronze showed relatively constant release rates of copper, being similar to that of pure copper sheet. The release of tin from bronze was negligible. The results clearly show that alloys and the pure metals behave very differently when exposed to rainwater. Accordingly, release rates from pure metals cannot be used to predict release rates of individual constituents from their alloys. Generated data are of importance within REACH, the new chemical policy of the European commission, where metal alloys erroneously are being treated as mixtures of chemical substances.     

An Examination of Governance Arrangements at Kisakasaka Mangrove Reserve in Zanzibar

This study employs insights largely derived from critical reflections on the common pool resources (CPR) theory to examine the current governance arrangements in place to manage the mangrove forest at Kisakasaka, in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Kisakasaka was used as a site for a community-based management pilot project of forest resources in Zanzibar. After some initial success in setting up a local management structure and regulating access to the mangrove for mainly charcoal production, there are now clear indications that forest conditions have deteriorated dramatically with concomitant ongoing resource use problems for local villagers who have relied heavily on forest resources as a source of cash income. Extra-local factors, such as urban population increases and associated market pressures for charcoal, are also conjectured to overlay and interact with the institutional problems at Kisakasaka. As a result, over concern about the deterioration in the condition of the mangrove forest, the responsible government authority decided not to renew the community-based governance arrangements after an initial five-year pilot period. While revealing the inadequacies of existing governance arrangements and of its relationship to deteriorating forest conditions at Kisakasaka, this study concludes by suggesting an approach to more fully understand forces driving local resource management and use.     

Results of the monitoring program of pesticide residues in organic food of plant origin in Lombardy (Italy)

Organic agriculture, with its restrictions on the use of synthetic chemical inputs, seems to offer a low-residue alternative to conventional methods. In Europe, the Council Regulation n. 2092/91/EEC regulates the production and trade of organic products and foodstuffs; national and regional legislation in Italy gives specific guidance on the surveillance of organic agriculture. However, monitoring of specific chemical residues in organic foodstuffs is part of the regular controls on food, aiming to safeguard consumer's health. Monitoring programs are coordinated at the national level by the Ministry of Health and at local level by Regional authorities. In Lombardy, in accordance with the provisions of the General Directorate of Health of the Region and under the supervision of the 15 Local Health Units, a monitoring program of pesticide residues in food of plant origin is undertaken every year. The International Centre for Pesticides and Health Risk Prevention (ICPS), on behalf of the General Directorate of Health of the Region of Lombardy, has been collecting and elaborating the data resulting from the analysis of food samples, carried out by the local laboratories. During the period 2002-2005, a total of 3508 samples food of plant origin were analyzed for pesticide residues, among which were 266 samples of organic farming products. Commodities were classified into groups (citrus fruits, legumes, vegetables, potatoes, processed products, cereals, and fruit other than citrus) and the outcomes of the analyses were reported by year, origin of the sample and presence/absence of pesticide residues. Results showed that the vast majority of organic farming products were in conformity with the relevant legislation and did not contain detectable pesticide residues. A limited amount of samples had residues at concentration below the Maximum Residue Limit (MRL). Only in one sample the residue level was above the MRL, however it did not pose a concern for public health, as demonstrated by the outcomes of dietary risk assessment. Organic fruits and vegetables can be expected to contain fewer agrochemical residues than conventionally grown alternatives. There is a widespread belief that organic agriculture products are safer and healthier than conventional foods. It is difficult to come to conclusions, but what should be made clear to the consumer is that "organic" does not automatically equal "safe". In the absence of adequate comparative data, additional studies in this area of research are required.     

From food aid to livelihoods support: rethinking the role of WFP in eastern Sudan

Despite more than 20 years of distribution of free emergency food in eastern Sudan (38 years in the case of refugees) Global Acute Malnutrition rates are currently the highest in the country. There has been no real improvement in the chronic livelihoods vulnerability that affects people in the region—particularly pastoralists. Food security must be seen from an informed livelihoods perspective. While food aid may still be required as part of transition, WFP must rethink its assistance strategy and advocate for complementarity in the efforts by development actors working across a range of sectors. Alternative models and interventions focused on the rehabilitation of markets and the development of' cargo nets' for the destitute, including cash transfers, must be developed and tested. Land tenure issues should be given particular attention. Food aid will probably remain an important element in the overall response, but its significance relative to other less developed forms of interventions should be reassessed.