Characterization and in vitro biological effects of ambient air PM10 from a rural,an industrial and an urban site in Sulaimani City,Iraq

Abstract

High urban atmospheric pollution is caused by economic and industrial growth, especially in developing countries. The objective of this study was to assess possible relationships between in vitro effects on human alveolar epithelial cells of source-related dust types collected at Sulaimani City (Iraq), and to determine their mineralogical and chemical composition. A passive sampler was used to collect dust particles at a rural, an industrial and an urban sampling site during July and August 2014. The samples were size-fractionated by a low-pressure impactor to obtain respirable dust with aerodynamic diameters of less than 10?µm. The dust was mainly composed of quartz and calcite. Chrysotile fibers (white asbestos) were also found at the urban site. Dust from the industrial and urban sites triggered cytotoxic and genotoxic effects in the cells, whereas only minor effects were observed for the sample from the rural site.     

Response to Kruse-Plass et al. (2017) regarding the risk to non-target lepidopteran larvae exposed to pollen from one or more of three Bt maize events (MON810, Bt11 and 1507)

We respond to the paper of Kruse-Plass et al. (Environ Sci Eur 29:12, 2017), published in this journal, regarding the risk to non-target lepidopteran larvae exposed to pollen from one or more of three Bt maize events (MON810, Bt11 and 1507). We emphasise that what is important for environmental risk assessment is not the number of pollen grains per se, but the degree of exposure of a NT lepidopteran larva to Bt protein contained in maize pollen. The main text of this response deals with general issues which Kruse-Plass et al. have failed to understand; more detailed refutations of each of their claims are given in Additional file 1. Valid environmental risk assessment requires direct measurement of pollen on leaves at varying distances outside a source field(s); such measurements reflect the potential exposure experienced by an individual larva on a host plant. There are no new data in the Kruse-Plass et al. paper, or indeed any data directly quantifying pollen on actual host-plant leaves outside a maize field; only data gathered within or at the edge of maize crops were reported. Values quoted by Kruse-Plass et al. for deposition on host plants outside the field were estimates only. We reiterate the severe methodological criticisms made by EFSA [Relevance of a new scientific publication (Hofmann et al. 2016) for previous environmental risk assessment conclusions and risk management recommendations on the cultivation of Bt-maize events MON810, Bt11 and 1507. EFSA Supp Publ; EN-1070, 2016], which render this estimation procedure unreliable. Furthermore, criticisms of EFSA (EFSA J 2015(13):4127, 2015) and of EFSA [Relevance of a new scientific publication (Hofmann et al. 2016) for previous environmental risk assessment conclusions and risk management recommendations on the cultivation of Bt-maize events MON810, Bt11 and 1507. EFSA Supp Publ; EN-1070, 2016] made by Kruse-Plass et al. are shown in Additional file 1 to be without foundation. We therefore consider that there is no valid evidence presented by Kruse-Plass et al. to justify their conclusions.     

Association of serum levels of polychlorinated biphenyls with IL-8 mRNA expression in blood samples from asthmatic and non-asthmatic Japanese children

Background

One of the suggested health outcomes of PCB exposure is childhood asthma.

Objectives

This study was conducted to find health relevant biomarkers providing the molecular epidemiological evidence for the positive relationship between exposure to PCBs and childhood asthma.

Methods

Blood samples from fifteen asthmatic children as well as an equal number of non-asthmatic children (average 2 year old) were collected, and were analyzed for PCBs and their select marker expression by using qRT-PCR.

Results

Among biomarkers examined IL-8 expression was significantly correlated to serum levels of PCB #163 + 164 (P = 0.022), #170 (P = 0.046), #177 (P = 0.022), #178 (P = 0.022) and #180 + 193 (P = 0.046) in a dose-dependent manner, which was found only among asthmatic children. In contrast, COX-2 correlations to individual congener levels were recognized only among control subjects, not among asthmatic subjects.

Conclusion

Serum concentrations of PCB#163 + 164, #170, #177, #178 and #180 + 193 correlate significantly with IL-8 mRNA expressions among asthmatic children.     

Climate change mitigation in Austria and Switzerland: The pitfalls of federalism in greening decentralized building policies

The present paper analyses and compares how federalism in Austria and Switzerland affected climate change mitigation in the fully decentralized building sectors of the two countries during the Kyoto Period (1990–2012). This is of interest because the environmental significance of federal political systems is still contested. We first review the literature on federalism in the context of environmental and climate policymaking, and we show that the effects of federal political systems can be positive or negative (depending on interactions between politics and problem characteristics). We then summarize the two qualitative country studies. By analysing who initiated and coordinated respective policies at what time and why, we show that respective policy changes neither emerged bottom-up nor diffused between provinces/cantons, although the latter are fully responsible for building policies. While most policy changes were triggered by federal and/or European Union interventions, the provinces/cantons usually delayed and/or watered down policy changes to smallest common denominator solutions. Based on these findings we conclude that the building sectors of the two countries became more efficient despite, not because of federalism. Against this background we recommend centralizing building policies, or to engage sub-national actors in national target-setting early on.     

Adaptivity of wayfinding strategies in a multi-building ensemble: The effects of spatial structure, task requirements, and metric information

This study investigates the adaptivity of wayfinding strategies in a real-world setting of a multi-building ensemble. Familiarity with the environment, map usage and verbal vs. visual task instructions were systematically varied. Measures included path choices, wayfinding performance and information usage. Thirty-two participants had to find eight goals in a multi-level building ensemble consisting of two distinctive building parts. It was tested whether the standard wall-mounted floor maps found in the majority of public buildings can help navigation in a complex unknown environment. Unfamiliar users tried to make use of these plans more frequently, but were not able to compensate for spatial knowledge deficits compared to participants familiar with the setting. Two strategies of multi-level wayfinding were compared with respect to a region-based hierarchical planning approach. Strategy selection could be shown to be highly adaptive to spatial properties of the environment as well as characteristics of the task instruction, i.e., spatial precision of target information. Overall, the strategy of moving horizontally into the target building prior to vertical travel was shown to be more effective in this multi-building setting.     

Aryl hydrocarbon receptor-mediated activity of atmospheric particulate matter from an urban and a rural site in Switzerland

Atmospheric particulate matter (PM) is an air-suspended mixture of solid and liquid particles that vary in size, shape, and chemical composition. Long-term exposure to elevated concentrations of fine atmospheric particles is considered to pose a health threat to humans and animals. In this context, it has been hypothesized that toxic chemicals such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) play an important role. Some PAHs are known to be carcinogenic and it has been shown that carcinogenic effects of PAHs are mediated by the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR). In this study, PM1 was collected at a rural and an urban traffic site during an intense winter smog period, in which concentration of PM1 often exceeded 50 μg m^?3. We applied an in vitro reporter gene assay (DR-CALUX) to detect and quantify PM1-associated chemicals that induce AhR-mediated gene expression. This activity was expressed as CALUX equivalents of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (PM-TCDD-CEQs). In addition, concentrations of PAHs in the PM1 extracts were determined using gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry. Concentrations of PM-TCDD-CEQs ranged from 10 to 85 pg m^?3 and from 19 to 87 pg m^?3 at the urban and rural site, respectively. By the use of known relative potency factors, the measured concentration of a PAH was converted into a PAH-TCDD-CEQ concentration. ΣPAH-TCDD-CEQ and PM-TCDD-CEQ were highly correlated at both sites (r² = 0.90 and 0.69). The calculated ΣPAH-TCDD-CEQs explain between 2% and 20% of the measured PM-TCDD-CEQs. Benzo[k]fluoranthene was the most important PAH causing approximately 60% of the total ΣPAH-TCDD-CEQ activity. In contrast to NO, CO, PM10, and PM1, the concentration of PM-TCDD-CEQs showed no significant difference between the two sites. No indications were found that road traffic emissions caused elevated concentrations of PM-TCDD-CEQs at the urban traffic site.     

Application and test of a simple tool for operational footprint evaluations

We present a user-friendly tool for footprint calculations of flux measurements in the surface layer. The calculations are based on the analytical footprint model by Kormann, R. and Meixner, F.X. [2001. An analytical footprint model for Non-neutral Stratification. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 99, 207-224]. The footprint density function of a flux sensor is determined using readily available data from standard eddy covariance measurements. This footprint density function is integrated over defined surface areas given as quadrangular polygons representing e.g. agricultural fields. We illustrate the use and performance of the tool by applying it to CO2 flux measurements with three eddy covariance system at the Swiss CarboEurope grassland site. Two flux towers were positioned in the centre of two neighbouring fields, respectively, that showed a very different CO2 flux during the study period. The third tower was located near the border of the two fields and was frequently influenced by both fields to a similar degree. The calculated footprint fractions were used to simulate the latter flux from the other two systems. The measured and simulated fluxes showed a good agreement and thus support the reliability of the footprint calculation. The presented simple footprint tool can be used as a routine quality check for flux monitoring stations influenced by surface areas with varying vegetation covers and/or land-use.     

Gesellschaftlicher Wandel und nachhaltige Entwicklung

Zusammenfassung   Hintergrund, Ziel und Themenbereich Um die Auswirkungen des gesellschaftlichen Wandels unter dem Kriterium der Nachhaltigkeit beurteilen zu k?nnen werden demographische, soziale und kulturelle Entwicklungen in den Blick genommen. Am Beispiel der Handlungsfelder ‚Bauen und Wohnen‘, ‚Infrastruktursysteme‘, ‚Verkehr und Mobilit?t‘ werden absehbare Entwicklungen aufgezeigt, und Handlungsspielr?ume und Instrumente für eine nachhaltige Gestaltung des gesellschaftlichen Wandels beschrieben. Schwerpunkte Demographischer Wandel, Sozio-kultureller Wandel, Auspr?gung des gesellschaftlichen Wandels in Schleswig-Holstein, Handlungsfelder ‚Bauen und Wohnen‘, ‚Infrastruktursysteme‘, ‚Mobilit?t und Verkehr‘, Umweltauswirkungen des gesellschaftlichen Wandels. Ergebnisse Weniger die absolute Zahl als vielmehr das von vielerlei Einflüssen gepr?gte Konsumverhalten der Menschen stellt unter Nachhaltigkeitsaspekten ein wichtiges Kriterium das. Ein wesentliches Kennzeichen des Wandels von der industriellen zur postindustriellen Gesellschaft ist eine Pluralisierung der Lebensstile und der damit verbundenen Konsummuster in nachhaltigkeitsrelevanten Handlungsfeldern. Diskussion Eine Vielzahl von Techniken steht zur Reduzierung des Umweltverbrauchs zur Verfügung. Dazu z?hlen z. B. w?rmeged?mmte H?user sowie strom- und wassersparende Haushaltsger?te, und verbrauchsarme Fahrzeuge mit geregeltem Katalysator. Ob diese Techniken eingesetzt werden, h?ngt dabei weniger von technischen als von kulturellen, politischen und ?konomischen Weichenstellungen ab. Schlussfolgerungen Der gesellschaftliche Wandel wird, wenn nicht gegengesteuert wird, massive Auswirkungen auf die Umwelt haben. Anders als man auf den ersten Blick vermuten k?nnte, wird es keine ‚Demographie-Rendite‘ geben. Auch die Nachhaltigkeitsbilanz der Postmaterialisten kann kaum positiver bewertet werden, als die der eher materiell eingestellten Menschen. Empfehlungen und Perspektiven Die Politik sollte die mit dem gesellschaftlichen Wandel verbundenen Probleme thematisieren, ihre Auswirkungen analysieren und zusammen mit den Akteuren einen umfassenden gesellschaftlichen Dialog- und Verst?ndigungsprozess initiieren. Dabei ist mit schnellen L?sungen nicht zu rechnen, denn die Komplexit?t der Thematik, die unterschiedlichen Interessenlagen und die Vielzahl der zu regelnden Sachverhalte erfordern einen langen Atem und Zeitr?ume, die über eine Legislaturperiode hinausgehen.      

Environmental assessment of ester-based lubricants after application

GOAL, SCOPE AND BACKGROUND: Lubricants based on renewable resources are an environmentally friendly alternative to petrochemical products due to their better ecotoxicological performance and their excellent biodegradability. To improve the technical performance of lubricants, and to reduce friction and wear, the use of additives is nowadays obligatory. The collaborative research center SFB 442 aims at developing environmentally acceptable lubricants that facilitate the avoidance of these additives by transferring their function to suitable coatings. For a complete assessment of the ecological performance of these newly developed lubricants, the whole life cycle including production, application as well as disposal and fate in the environment is studied. In the following study the focus was on the application and its influence on the environmental behavior of the lubricant. The application of lubricants leads, among other things, to the intake of metals due to abrasion from tools, work pieces or mechanical components. Previous examinations indicated a possible influence of metals on the toxicity of eluates prepared from used lubricants (Erlenkaemper et al. 2005). To clarify if the apparent toxicity of used lubricants solely results from the intake of metals, the extractability of these metals from the oil matrix is determined. By combining chemical analyses with bioassays, the bioavailability of metals that are present in the extract is estimated. To further investigate the relevance of metals on toxicity, toxic units (TU) were calculated and related to the results of the bioassays. Interactions between the metals were investigated with aqueous mixtures of metal chlorides and calculations based on the concept of concentration addition and independent action. METHODS: A lubricant mixture was applied to a tribological test bench that simulates real conditions of use and extremely short time load, respectively. Samples were taken at particular times, water soluble fractions (WSF) of these fluids were prepared and dilution series were investigated in several bioassays. Concentration of metals and total organic carbon (TOC) were determined in the eluates. TUs were calculated according to Sprague (1970) and mixture toxicity was calculated according to the concept of concentration addition (Loewe and Muischnek 1926) and independent action (Bliss 1939). RESULTS: Analyses of the metal content of the lubricant and the eluates clearly revealed the availability of the metals in the aqueous extracts. Especially copper, zinc, nickel and chromium were found and their concentrations increased during the time of use. The water extractable fraction, e.g., of copper, rose from 8.8% to 45.3% of the total content in the lubricant after 33.5 hours of use. Tests performed with the algal growth inhibition assay and the luminescence inhibition assay revealed the uptake or absorption by the organisms and, thus, the bioavailability of the metals. The calculation of TUs partly indicated a possible influence of the metals on ecotoxicity of the eluates. Copper reached concentrations equal to or higher than the EC50 value of copper chloride in the growth inhibition assays with algae and Ps. putida as well in the immobilization assay with daphnids. TUs for copper are also larger than 1 for the algal growth inhibition assay. The EL50 values indicated that the luminescence inhibition assay was the most sensitive test system, with values between 4.7% and 9.6%. While the toxicity towards algae and V. fischeri in the growth inhibition assay decreased until both organisms were no longer influenced by the exposure, the EL50 values for the D. magna immobilization assay and the Ps. putida growth inhibition assay decreased with the progressing use of the lubricant. The tested metal salt mixtures showed that Ps. putida, algae and daphnids are the most sensitive organisms with EC50 values below 1 mg/l. DISCUSSION: Although the intake of metals mainly occurred via abrasion of particles, the results revealed the availability of these metals in water. The availability varied for each of the four metals. For both the algal growth inhibition assay and the luminescence inhibition assay, an uptake or absorption of the metals could be demonstrated. The calculated TUs indicated an effect in some bioassays that was not verified in the test itself. The influence of copper on V. fischeri, for example, was not confirmed while the EL50 values for the daphnid bioassay decreased, meaning that the eluates became more toxic with progressing use of the lubricant. The calculations of mixture toxicity based on the concept of concentration addition demonstrated good correlations with the tested metal mixtures, but also a different sensitivity of the organisms. CONCLUSIONS: The results presented here reveal the availability of those metals in water that were taken in during the use of the lubricant in a tribological test bench and, thus, have the possibility of interacting with the organisms. The availability of the metals in the bioassays was proven by chemical analyses. The calculation of TUs and the corresponding EL50 values, however, indicate different availabilities of the metals. The results of the metal salt mixtures show good correlations with calculations of mixture toxicity based on concentration addition. Moreover, the varying sensitivity of the organisms when exposed to eluates or metal mixtures indicates a different bioavailability of the metals and/or the presence of other compounds that exert toxic action. RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES: For further investigations, the organic oil matrix and its influence on the toxicity have to be taken into account. The toxicity of the eluates may not only be due to metals; additional effects could arise from changes in the lubricant itself.