Forest Protection and Reforestation in Costa Rica: Evaluation of a Clean Development Mechanism Prototype

/ Costa Rica has recently established a program that provides funds for reforestation and forest protection on private lands, partly through the sale of carbon certificates to industrialized countries. Countries purchasing these carbon offsets hope one day to receive credit against their own commitments to limit emissions of greenhouse gases. Costa Rica has used the proceeds of the sale of carbon offsets to Norway to help finance this forest incentive program, called the Private Forestry Project, which pays thousands of participants to reforest or protect forest on their lands. The Private Forestry Project is accompanied by a monitoring program conducted by Costa Rican forest engineers that seeks to determine net carbon storage accomplished on these lands each year. The Private Forestry Project, which is officially registered as an Activity Implemented Jointly, is a possible model for bundled projects funded by the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) established by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. It also serves as an interesting example for the CDM because it was designed by a developing country host-not by an industrialized country investor. Accordingly, it reflects the particular "sustainable development" objectives of the host country or at least the host planners. Early experience in implementing the Private Forestry Project is evaluated in light of the main objectives of the CDM and its precursor-Activities Implemented Jointly. It is concluded that the project appears to meet the criteria of global cost-effectiveness and financing from non-ODA sources. The sustainable development implications of the project are specific to the region and would not necessarily match the ideals of all investing and developing countries. The project may be seen to achieve additional greenhouse gas abatement when compared against some (although not all) baselines.     

‘Natural’ disaster? A retrospect into the causes of the late-2004 typhoon disaster in Eastern Luzon, Philippines

Between 14 November and 4 December 2004, four successive tropical depressions and typhoons lashed the Eastern coast of Luzon in the Philippines. Heavy rainfall triggered massive landslides and devastating flash floods, which brought tremendous damage and killed more than 1600 people. Immediately after the disaster, there was a media and political consensus to incrimate ‘extraordinary’ natural phenomena and widespread deforestation as responsible for the catastrophe. We argue that the tragedy that befell the municipalities of General Nakar, Infanta and Real, among other devastated areas, is enmeshed in a deeper tangle of causal factors that are political, socio-economic and demographic in nature. These factors include unmanaged population growth, difficult access to land and resources, corruption within the government, and power of the elite.     

Using Ecological Footprints as a Policy Driver: The Case of Sustainable Construction Planning Policy in London

The heuristic value of the ecological footprint (EF) conceptual device has met with considerable political and civic buy-in at national, regional and local levels. It is seen as particularly valuable for visualizing ecological overshoot but debates about methodological soundness have undermined this potential. This paper examines the emerging opportunities for advanced footprinting approaches that use input-output analysis to test 'what if?' policy scenarios and hence turn EF into a proactive driver for sustainability-oriented policy development. It focuses on the London case and the specific arena of planning policy for sustainable construction.     

Enhanced learning from multi-stakeholder partnerships: Lessons from the Enabling Rural Innovation in Africa programme

Despite increasing interest and support for multi‐stakeholder partnerships, empirical applications of participatory evaluation approaches to enhance learning from partnerships are either uncommon or undocumented. This paper draws lessons on the use of participatory self‐reflective approaches that facilitate structured learning on processes and outcomes of partnerships. Such practice is important to building partnerships, because it helps partners understand how they can develop more collaborative and responsive ways of managing partnerships. The paper is based on experience with the Enabling Rural Innovation (ERI) in Africa programme. Results highlight the dynamic process of partnership formation and the key elements that contribute to success. These include: (i) shared vision and complementarity, (ii) consistent support from senior leadership; (iii) evidence of institutional and individual benefits; (iv) investments in human and social capital; (v) joint resources mobilization. However, key challenges require coping with high staff turnover and over‐commitment, conflicting personalities and institutional differences, high transaction costs, and sustaining partnerships with the private business sector. The paper suggests that institutionalizing multi‐stakeholder partnerships requires participatory reflective practices that help structure and enhance learning, and incrementally help in building the capacity of research and development organisations to partner better and ultimately to innovate.     

Nutrient Uptake in a Large Urban River1

Abstract: Small streams have been shown to be efficient in retaining nutrients and regulating downstream nutrient fluxes, but less is known about nutrient retention in larger rivers. We quantified nutrient uptake length and uptake velocity in a regulated urban river to determine the river’s ability to retain nutrients associated with wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent. We measured net uptake of soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), dissolved organic phosphorus, ammonium (NH₄), nitrate, and dissolved organic nitrogen in the Chattahoochee River, Atlanta, GA by following the downstream decline of nutrients and fluoride from WWTP effluent on 10 dates under low flow conditions. Uptake of all nutrients was sporadic. On many dates, there was no evidence of measurable nutrient uptake lengths within the reach; indeed, on several dates release of inorganic N and P within the sample reach led to increased nutrient export downstream. When uptake occurred, SRP uptake length was negatively correlated with total suspended solids and temperature. Uptake velocities of SRP and NH₄ in the Chattahoochee River were lower than velocities in less‐modified systems, but they were similar to those measured in other WWTP impacted systems. Lower uptake velocities indicate a diminished capacity for nutrient uptake.     

Do Nutrients Limit Algal Periphyton in Small Blackwater Coastal Plain Streams?1

Abstract: We examine the potential for nutrient limitation of algal periphyton biomass in blackwater streams draining the Georgia coastal plain. Previous studies have investigated nutrient limitation of planktonic algae in large blackwater rivers, but virtually no scientific information exists regarding how algal periphyton respond to nutrients under different light conditions in smaller, low‐flow streams. We used a modification of the Matlock periphytometer (nutrient‐diffusing substrata) to determine if algal growth was nutrient limited and/or light limited at nine sites spanning a range of human impacts from relatively undisturbed forested basins to highly disturbed agricultural sites. We employed four treatments in both shaded and sunny conditions at each site: (1) control, (2) N (NO₃‐N), (3) P (PO₄‐P), and (4) N + P (NO₃‐N + PO₄‐P). Chlorophyll a response was measured on 10 replicate substrates per treatment, after 15 days of in situ exposure. Chlorophyll a values did not approach what have been defined as nuisance levels (i.e., 100‐200 mg/m²), even in response to nutrient enrichment in sunny conditions. For Georgia coastal plain streams, algal periphyton growth appears to be primarily light limited and can be secondarily nutrient limited (most commonly by P or N + P combined) in light gaps and/or open areas receiving sunlight.     

Footstep-induced sediment displacement in the Grand Canyon

The Glen Canyon Dam has severely altered the riparian zone of the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon. One result of the controlled river discharge is more efficient prediction of water stages at the major rapids, leading to higher visitor use. Increased visitation results in heavy foot traffic, trampling along the river banks, erosion of the campsite soils, and the destruction of vegetation. Erosion occurs when the surfaces are roughened, exposing them to wind transport and runoff. In addition, each footstep physically displaces sand downhill.The results of a field experiment designed to measure the amount of sand displaced by footsteps show that each year trampling alone displaces 230 m³ of sand downslope and into the river. With the controlled river flow, no natural processes exist to replace the lost sediment.     

Trail erosion patterns in Great Smoky Mountains National Park

All the maintained trails in Great Smoky Mountains National Park were surveyed for width, depth, and a variety of types of erosion. Trail erosion is related to a number of environmental variables, including vegetation type, elevation, trail slope, and section of the park. Open grass balds and spruce-fir forest are the most erosion-sensitive plant communities, and the xeric oak and pine types are the least sensitive. Trails in virgin or mature forest tend to be in poorer condition than those in successional areas. The most important physical factor is the slope of the trail.Trails in the Tennessee district are in slightly poorer condition, on the average, than those in the North Carolina district, but the Appalachian Trail is more eroded than either. A poor section of the park may have ten times the erosion of a good section. On an allpark basis, water erosion is the most important problem, with 15% of the trail surface affected.A comparison of visitation patterns with trail condition indicates that redistribution of use would help to mitigate some erosion problems. Because trail condition is correlated to physical environmental factors, however, some sites will require intensive maintenance, even if visitation is low.The data from this survey have already been used in environmental analysis of proposed developments within the park and can be applied to long-range planning for the park trail system as a whole.     

Grassy balds of the Great Smoky Mountains: Their history and flora in relation to potential management

The origin of the grassy balds of the Great Smoky Mountains is examined. Some of the areas were cleared by settlers. Grazing by sheep and cattle and the cutting of trees were probably the most important factors in maintaining the grass sward; fire apparently was not used.Vegetation survey plots indicated that little of the original balds' area was still grassy and that most of the invading trees and shrubs could be expected to sprout if cut or burned. Areas presently trampled or mowed had a flora similar to a bald that was still grazed. High-elevation burn scars had many species in common with the grassy balds but had dissimilar community structures; therefore, a policy favoring natural fires would be unlikely to encourage maintanence or formation of grassy balds.The management of open grassy areas on National Forest lands was investigated. Burning was the favored technique, although hand cutting, mowing, and grazing were used. The results of testing various management practices on Gregory Bald are reviewed in terms of cost, impact, and historical authenticity. Implications for park management are discussed.     

INCOME DISTRIBUTION IMPACTS OF A WATER DEVELOPMENT PROJECT - BOISE PROJECT,IDAHO, 1950–19701

ABSTRACT: Public investments in water resource development projects are continually under scrutiny in terms of economic, environmental, and social impacts. Results of an analysis of a water development project that supplies irrigation water in Idaho are discussed in terms of the impact on income distribution and income growth 44 to 64 years after the project was initiated. Gini ratios for the rural farm population of these counties were consistently lower than they were for the United States as a whole and for the state of Idaho. In addition, income distributions tended to become more equitable over time in the water project counties. Rural farm population income growth rates were found to be similar to those for the nation as a whole. Some of the reasons for these results may be related to the tendency for income distribution to become more equitable as income increases, and the fact that average farm size is relatively small.