Longitudinal examination of underage drinking and subsequent drinking and risky driving

INTRODUCTION: Alcohol use, alcohol misuse, and risky driving from adolescence into young adulthood were compared by drinking onset age. METHODS: Surveys were administered in Grades 5/6, 6/7, 7/8, 10, 12, and at approximately age 23. Participants were placed into Drinking Onset groups based on self-reported alcohol use frequency on the adolescent surveys. Driving records were examined in three age periods: under 21, 21-25, and 26+. RESULTS: The earliest drinking initiators reported higher alcohol use and misuse on each survey, and were more likely to have risky driving offenses before age 21 and to have alcohol driving offenses in all three age periods. DISCUSSION: The earliest drinking initiators engaged in risky drinking behavior and risky driving behavior that was consistently higher than those with later drinking initiation, beginning in adolescence and persisting well into young adulthood.     

SAFEST TO TRAVEL BY BICYCLE,CAR, OR BIG TRUCK?

This study compares highway crash incidence, injuries, and costs by vehicle type. Annual crash and injury incidence were estimated using Crashworthiness Data System (1988-1991), National Automotive Sampling System (1982-1986), General Estimates System (1992-1993), and Fatal Analysis Reporting System (1993) data. Costs were computed based on restraint use, body region, and threat-to-life severity of the injury. Costs were then allocated between vehicle types using three different methods in order to answer comparative safety questions. Motor vehicle and bicycle crash costs total $389 billion annually; 75% resulting from passenger vehicles. Motorcycles and bicycles have the highest costs per 1000 vehicle and passenger miles; costs per victim are highest for pedestrians, bicyclists, and motorcyclists. Costs per vehicle mile for heavy trucks and passenger cars are comparable but exceed costs for light trucks. Passenger vehicle occupants are safest if a crash occurs. Light truck, other single truck, and bus occupants have the lowest cost per passenger mile, but higher costs than air and rail travelers. Motorcyclists face the greatest risks. Combination trucks may not impose an excess risk to other drivers, but their drivers face large risks.     

Integrated Estimation of the Effect of Physical Factors on Human Functional State During Mental Work

The purpose of this study was to develop a model for an integrated estimation of the functional state of the human organism (FSHO) and an integral estimation of physical factors (PF) for hygienic rating. Tests were performed twice with 3 men in 0.7-clo clothing during 4-hr mental work with 9 combinations of 4 PF: wideband noise (55–83 dB(A)), whole-body vibration (6 Hz, a_z = 0.2–1.8 ms^?2), air temperature (18–30 °C), and illumination (1, 3, 5 lx). Thermoregulatory, cardiovascular, and psychophysiological reactions and temporary threshold of hearing (TTS₂) shifts were studied. For the integral estimation of PF influence on FSHO the model F(y₁, y₂, ... y_m) = f(x₁, x₂, ... x_n) was used, relating both FSHO and PF sets. The most important physiological parameters in creating FSHO are defined and the contribution of individual parameters of FSHO and PF is found.     

Experimental investigation of hydrogen–air deflagrations and detonations in semi-confined flat layers

This paper presents results of an experimental investigation on the deflagration and deflagration-to-detonation transition (DDT) in an obstructed (blockage ratio BR = 50%), semi-confined flat layer filled with uniform hydrogen–air mixtures. The effect of mixture reactivity depending on flat layer thickness and its width is studied to evaluate the critical conditions for sonic flame propagation and the possibility for detonation onset. The experiments were performed in a transparent, rectangular channel with a length of 2.5 m. The flat layer thickness was varied from 0.06 to 0.24 m and the experiments were performed for different channel widths of 0.3, 0.6 and 0.9 m. The experimental results show flame velocity vs. hydrogen concentration for different thicknesses and widths of the semi-confined flat layer. Three different flame propagation regimes were observed: slow subsonic flame (M << 1), sonic deflagration (M ～ 1) and detonation (M >> 1). It is shown that flame acceleration (FA) to sonic speed is independent of the width of the flat layer. The critical expansion ratio for effective flame acceleration to sonic speed was found to be linearly dependent on the reciprocal layer thickness.     

Two-phase jet releases,droplet dispersion and rainout,II. Rainout experiments

This paper describes the results of the first experimental stage of Phase IV of a Joint Industry Project (JIP) on liquid jets and two-phase droplet dispersion. The objective of this stage of the JIP was to generate experimental rainout data for non-flashing water and xylene experiments. See the overview companion paper I for a wider overview of the problem, model implementation and associated model validation.A range of orifice sizes (2.5 and 5 mm) and stagnation pressures (4–16 barg) were applied. Measurements included flow rate, initial droplet size, plume concentrations/temperatures for a range of downstream locations, and distributed rainout.Instead of the Phase Doppler Anemometry method used for droplet size measurements earlier in the JIP, a photographic technique was applied in an attempt to include measurement of the larger (non-spherical) droplets. This enabled a more accurate evaluation of the initial droplet size distribution and a much clearer understanding of the droplet morphology. The results showed that the droplet behaviour in the jet is more complex than had been anticipated with the mass distribution dominated by a very small number of large non-spherical droplets. Consequently a large number of spray images were required to evaluate an accurate size distribution.Distributed rainout was measured by weighing the amount of rainout in trays positioned along the jet direction. The rainout results showed a good degree of repeatability and internal consistency. They indicated that an increasing proportion of the released material did not rainout for increasing pressure. Rainout distance also increased with increasing pressure. Evaporation of the liquid was confirmed by temperature measurements, which showed the effect of evaporative cooling.Xylene concentration measurements (up to 1%) were carried out using a direct reading photoionization detector calibrated for xylene (measuring vapour only). For a limited dataset, the accuracy of these measurements was estimated by means of comparison against an alternative more time-consuming concentration method (xylene absorption onto a charcoal filter; measuring both vapour and liquid). The concentration measurements displayed several consistent qualitative features. For example, at a given downstream distance, the peak concentration increases with increasing pressure and nozzle diameter and the vertical height at which the peak is achieved increases. The cross-stream profiles displayed a consistent tendency to increased concentration at the edge of the jet, and the reason for this has not been established.Finally recommendations are provided for potential future work.     

Experimental determination of dust cloud deflagration parameters of selected hydrogen storage materials: Complex metal hydrides,chemical hydrides,and adsorbents

This paper discusses the results of an experimental program carried out to determine dust cloud deflagration parameters of selected solid-state hydrogen storage materials, including complex metal hydrides (sodium alanate and lithium borohydride/magnesium hydride mixture), chemical hydrides (alane and ammonia borane) and activated carbon (Maxsorb, AX-21). The measured parameters include maximum deflagration pressure rise, maximum rate of pressure rise, minimum ignition temperature, minimum ignition energy and minimum explosible concentration. The calculated explosion indexes include volume-normalized maximum rate of pressure rise (K_St), explosion severity (ES) and ignition sensitivity (IS). The deflagration parameters of Pittsburgh seam coal dust and Lycopodium spores (reference materials) are also measured. The results show that activated carbon is the safest hydrogen storage media among the examined materials. Ammonia borane is unsafe to use because of the high explosibility of its dust. The core insights of this contribution are useful for quantifying the risks associated with use of these materials for on-board systems in light-duty fuel cell-powered vehicles and for supporting the development of hydrogen safety codes and standards. These insights are also critical for designing adequate safety features such as explosion relief venting and isolation devices and for supplementing missing data in materials safety data sheets.     

An approach for domino effect reduction based on optimal layouts

An approach to reduce the probability of producing a domino effect in process industry is developed in this work. It is assumed that optimal layouts should include appropriate analysis to reduce risk during the process design stage. The model developed for this approach combines the estimation of probability of damage due to overpressure, proposed by Mingguang and Juncheng (2008), and escalation threshold values defined by Cozzani, Gubinelli, and Salzano (2006). These equations are combined with other typical layout constraints as well as bounding the probability constraint, which has resulted in a highly non-linear MINLP problem. Solving a case study used by other authors provides evidence for reliability of the developed approach. In this way, layouts are designed to reduce the escalation probability yielding safe distributions.     

Worst-case identification of gas dispersion for gas detector mapping using dispersion modeling

To quickly and accurately quantify the material release in process units, gas detectors may be placed according to the results of gas dispersion modeling. DNV's PHAST software is one of the most useful and reliable tools for material dispersion modeling. In this software, fluid dispersion is modeled based on the process conditions, the weather conditions and the specifications of the material release point. However, varying weather conditions throughout the year and the exact determination of the release point on the plot plan and the release elevation are problematic; these issues cause the results to be non-exact and non-integrated. Choosing the most appropriate conditions is challenging. In this paper, a scheme was provided to select the most appropriate conditions for gas dispersion modeling. This scheme approaches modeling based on the worst-case scenario (the situation in which the dispersed gas reaches the detector later in comparison to the other cases). Therefore, different weather conditions, release elevations and release points on the plot plan were modeled for an absorber tower of the Gonbadli Dehydration Unit of the Khangiran Refinery. The worst case of each release condition was then chosen. Finally, gas detectors were placed using the gas dispersion modeling results based on the worst-case scenario.     

Media surface properties and the development of nitrifying biofilms in mixed cultures for wastewater treatment

Plastic was tested to select biofilm support media that would enhance nitrification in the presence of heterotrophs. Eight different types (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, nylon, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), polyvinyl chloride and tufnol) were immersed in an aerobic fed-batch reactor receiving domestic settled wastewater. Nitrification rates did not correlate with biomass concentrations, nor surface roughness of the plastics as measured by atomic force microscopy (AFM). The maximum nitrification rate of 1.5 g/m² d^?1 was obtained from biofilms growing on PTFE which had the lowest surface adhesion force (8 nN). Nitrification rates for the biofilms were inversely correlated with the attraction forces as measured by AFM.     

Experimental and theoretical investigations for mitigating NaAlH4 reactivity risks during postulated accident scenarios involving exposure to air or water

Experimental and theoretical studies were conducted to investigate the pyrophoricity and water-reactivity risks associated with employing sodium alanate (NaAlH₄) complex metal hydride in on-board vehicular hydrogen (H₂) storage systems. The ignition and explosivity of NaAlH₄ upon exposure to oxidizers in air or water were attributed to the spontaneous formation of stable hydroperoxyl intermediates on the NaAlH₄ surface and/or H₂ production, as well as the large driving force for NaAlH₄ conversion to favorable hydroxide products predicted by atomic and thermodynamic modeling. The major products from NaAlH₄ exposure to air: NaAl(OH)₄, gibbsite and bayerite Al(OH)₃, and Na₂CO₃ observed by XRD, were identified to be formed by surface-controlled reactions. The reactivity risks were significantly minimized, without compromising de-/re-hydrogenation cyclability, by compacting NaAlH₄ powder into wafers to reduce the available surface area. These core findings are of significance to risk mitigation and H₂ safety code and standard development for the safe use of NaAlH₄ for on-board H₂ storage in light-duty vehicles.