How Should Support for Climate-Friendly Technologies Be Designed?

Stabilizing global greenhouse gas concentrations at levels to avoid significant climate risks will require massive “decarbonization” of all the major economies over the next few decades, in addition to the reduced emissions from other GHGs and carbon sequestration. Achieving the necessary scale of emissions reductions will require a multifaceted policy effort to support a broad array of technological and behavioral changes. Change on this scale will require sound, well-thought-out strategies. In this article, we outline some core principles, drawn from recent social science research, for guiding the design of clean technology policies, with a focus on energy. The market should be encouraged to make good choices: pricing carbon emissions and other environmental damage, removing distorting subsidies and barriers to competition, and supporting RD&D broadly. More specific policies are required to address particular market failures and barriers. For those technologies identified as being particularly desirable, some narrower RD&D policies are available.     

Characterizing sources of nitrate leaching from an irrigated dairy farm in Merced County, California

Dairy farms comprise a complex landscape of groundwater pollution sources. The objective of our work is to develop a method to quantify nitrate leaching to shallow groundwater from different management units at dairy farms. Total nitrate loads are determined by the sequential calibration of a sub-regional scale and a farm-scale three-dimensional groundwater flow and transport model using observations at different spatial scales. These observations include local measurements of groundwater heads and nitrate concentrations in an extensive monitoring well network, providing data at a scale of a few meters and measurements of discharge rates and nitrate concentrations in a tile-drain network, providing data integrated across multiple farms. The various measurement scales are different from the spatial scales of the calibration parameters, which are the recharge and nitrogen leaching rates from individual management units. The calibration procedure offers a conceptual framework for using field measurements at different spatial scales to estimate recharge N concentrations at the management unit scale. It provides a map of spatially varying dairy farming impact on groundwater nitrogen. The method is applied to a dairy farm located in a relatively vulnerable hydrogeologic region in California. Potential sources within the dairy farm are divided into three categories, representing different manure management units: animal exercise yards and feeding areas (corrals), liquid manure holding ponds, and manure irrigated forage fields. Estimated average nitrogen leaching is 872 kg/ha/year, 807 kg/ha/year and 486 kg/ha/year for corrals, ponds and fields respectively. Results are applied to evaluate the accuracy of nitrogen mass balances often used by regulatory agencies to assess groundwater impacts. Calibrated leaching rates compare favorably to field and farm scale nitrogen mass balances. These data and interpretations provide a basis for developing improved management strategies.     

Proactive environmental management is the key to full compliance

There are two key elements to achieving full and complete regulatory compliance: cost-efficient management of current regulatory requirements under existing environmental law and the capability to anticipate and analyze the impact of future regulations on the facility. The author provides step-by-step advice on how to develop a program to accomplish a corporate goal of zero violations.     

ATFITUDES TOWARDS ARTIFICIAL WETLANDS IN ONTARIO FOR STORMWATER CONTROL AND WATERFOWL HABITAT1

ABSTRACT: The objective was to survey individuals from different interest groups in Ontario to ascertain attitudes towards the use of artificial wetlands for stormwater management and to provide waterfowl habitat. In total, 166 questionnaires were distributed and 124 cempleted returns were received. The results of the survey show that the provision of wetlands as waterfowl habitats in the context of stormwater impoundments is severely limited and is not considered an important management option. The overwhelming rejection of this integrated approach seems to be due to a lack of understanding and its comparative newness. Some of the perceived problems and concerns could be addressed by improvements in the design of the artificial wetlands. The design and implementation of an artificial wetland prototype as part of an education program in Ontario is recommended. A few research opportunities also are outlined.     

PREDICTING MEASUREMENT ERROR OF AREAL MEAN PRECIPITATION DURING EXTREME EVENTS1

ABSTRACT: The areal mean precipitation (AMP) over a catchment is normally calculated using point measurements at rainfall gages. Error in AMP estimates occurs when an insufficient number of gages are used to sample precipitation which is highly variable in space. AMP error is investigated using historic, severe rainfalls with a set of hypothetical catchments and raingage networks. The potential magnitude of error is estimated for typical gage network densities and arrangements. Possible sources of error are evaluated, and a method is proposed for predicting the magnitude of error using data that are commonly available for severe, historic rainfall.     

Evaluation of a chemical stabilization process

Environmental Resources Management (ERM) performed an evaluation of a biosolids chemical stabilization process known as BIO*FIX®, marketed by Bio Gro Systems, Inc., of Annapolis, Maryland. The purpose of the evaluation was (1) to assess major characteristics of the process and its final product, (2) to determine the quantity and final disposition of all components in the incoming biosolids, and (3) to determine if the process conforms to new regulations promulgated and administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) titled “Standards for the Use or Disposal of Sewage Sludges” (40 CFR Part 503). The BIO*FIX® chemical stabilization process involves the addition of calcium oxide (CaO) to dewatered biosolids at rates that achieve the pathogen reduction and vector attraction reduction requirements of the 503 program while creating a marketable end product used as an agricultural amendment. ERM's project involved the testing of four process streams in order to create a mass balance on the process. Laboratory analyses were performed on samples of the dewatered biosolids, the chemically-stabilized end product, and the scrubber water effluent. The primary components of concern tested in the above process streams were ammonia, metals, odorous compounds, particulate matter, and organic matter. Through the tests described in the article, ERM drew the following conclusions: (1) The major gaseous pollutant resulting from the BIO*FIX® process is gaseous ammonia. The total gaseous ammonia released from the product depends on the ammonia nitrogen content of the biosolids, and pH and temperature levels reached in the process. Additional ammonia is emitted when the end product is loaded in trucks and stored. Any gaseous ammonia remaining in the end product after processing will slowly dissipate over time. (2) Other potential odor pollutants such as hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and mercaptans were found to be below detectable levels in the uncontrolled exhaust gas. (3) Metals were not found in the exhaust gas in any detectable quantities. They would not be expected to volatilize during the process. Particulate matter emissions were found to be very low. (4) The pathogen reduction and vector attraction reduction requirements of the 40 CFR 503 regulations were met or exceeded. (5) Finally, through observations and tests, ERM found that the BIO*FIX® chemical stabilization process provides for a simple, viable, and effective conversion of biosolids into a beneficial use product in compliance with all pertinent regulations.     

Earthquake risk reduction: An examination of local regulatory efforts

We develop an understanding of local governmental efforts to address earthquake risks. Our data for a sample of California and Washington cities' risk-reduction efforts sort into two different clusters of leading jurisdictions as contrasted with a cluster of lagging jurisdictions. We explain differences among the three categories of cities in terms of different political-economic factors. Local governmental willingness and ability to undertake risk-reduction programs have more to do with local political demands and community resources than with objective risk or previous earthquake experience. State mandates have a selective impact on local risk-reduction efforts. The principal policy lessons concern the need to address gaps in local risk-reduction efforts through more careful targeting of federal and state earthquake programs and by including stronger teeth within state mandates.