Agro-Biodiversity Conservation in Europe: Ethical Issues

While it is commonly acknowledged that the ecosystemic, and the inter- and intra-specific diversity of natural life is under threat of being irremediably lost, there is much less awareness that the diversity in agro-ecosystems is also under threat. This paper is focused on the biodiverse agro-ecosystems generated by landraces (LRs), i.e., farmer-developed populations of cultivated species that show among- and within-population diversity and are linked to traditional cultures. The aim of this work is to arouse concern about their loss, to explain how they can be conserved, and to discuss values that support maintaining and/or restoring on-farm agro-biodiversity. Although agriculture has relied on biodiverse agro-ecosystems for millennia, most of them have disappeared or are disappearing due to profound transformations in the socio-economic context. This is discussed with particular reference to the European situation. The positive values of LRs and LR systems that support their conservation are discussed along with possible objections. The conservation of LRs and LR systems can be well justified on ethical grounds. In particular, the complex intertwining of the biological and cultural contexts of LR systems, which continuously creates new adaptive responses to the changing socio-economic and eco-physical processes, is a value that strongly motivates conservation, particularly when the needs of future generations are considered.     

RAINFALL POINT INTENSITIES IN AN AIR MASS THUNDERSTORM ENVIRONMENT: WALNUT GULCH,ARIZONA1

ABSTRACT: Point rainfall intensities for a given return period are often used to formulate design storms for rainfall/runoff models to simulate design floods. These design floods are in turn used to design bridges, culverts, and a variety of drainage and flood control structures. The projected rapid growth in the southwestern United States will require very substantial monetary investments in drainage infrastructure. Accurate estimates of point rainfall intensities are critical to ensure both safe designs while not wasting dollars in overdesign. Rainfall point intensities (accumulated rainfall depth over a specified duration) for 5‐, 15‐, 30‐, and 60‐minute durations for the 2‐, 5‐, 10‐, 25‐, 50‐, and 100‐year return periods were determined for southeast Arizona. Thirty‐five years of rainfall record (1961 to 1995) were used in this study. The records came from 20 stations that were grouped into five sets of four independent stations to extend the rainfall records. The stations are in the USDA‐ARS Walnut Gulch Experimental Watershed (WGEW), which is representative of large portions of the Southwest whose runoff generation is dominated by air‐mass thunderstorms. The 5‐, 15‐, 30‐, and 60‐minute maximum intensities per year followed log‐normal distributions. The mean point rainfall intensities of the five sets of gages are very close (between 0 and 11 percent) to the NOAA values of the 5‐, 15‐, 30‐, and 60‐minute durations for all return periods. Much larger differences between the mean point rainfall intensities for all durations were found when these results were compared to those of a previous study done with a shorter rainfall record (between 14 and 33 percent for the 25‐, 50‐, and 100‐year return‐periods). The difference between the largest and the smallest values of point rainfall intensities recorded by each group, for all durations, usually increases as the return period increases.     

Chemometric data analysis application to Sparus aurata samples from two offshore farming plants along the Apulian (Italy) coastline

The levels of polychlorodibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorodibenzofurans (PCDFs), dioxin-like polychlorobiphenyls (DL-PCBs), non-dioxin-like polychlorobiphenyls (NDL-PCBs), and polybromodiphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in fish collected from two marine offshore farming plants were determined. Each sample was constituted by specimens of the same size collected at the same time in four different seasons along the farming year. The feeds given were of industrial origin and the plants were positioned in two different sites respectively exposed to different environmental characteristics. A chemometric approach was applied to interpret the subtle differences observed in fish body burdens across the three chemical groups taken into consideration. The approach consisted in a stepwise multivariate process including a hierarchical cluster analysis (CA) and a linear discriminant analysis (DA). The two main clusters determined by CA were subjected to the canonical DA, backward and forward selection procedures to select the best discriminative functions. A clear temporal and spatial discrimination was found among the samples. Across the three chemical groups, the monthly separation seemed to depend on the growth process and the main exposure was due to the feed. In addition, the two plants differed significantly from the environmental point of view and the most important discriminating group of chemicals were the NDL-PCBs. The approach resulted really effective in discriminating the subtle differences and in individuating suggestions to improve the quality of culturing conditions.     

Biochemical modifications in Pinus pinaster Ait. as a result of environmental pollution

Exposure to chemical pollution can cause significant damage to plants by imposing conditions of oxidative stress. Plants combat oxidative stress by inducing antioxidant metabolites, enzymatic scavengers of activated oxygen and heat shock proteins. The accumulation of these proteins, in particular heat shock protein 70 and heme oxygenase, is correlated with the acquisition of thermal and chemical adaptations and protection against oxidative stress. In this study, we used Pinus pinaster Ait. collected in the areas of Priolo and Aci Castello representing sites with elevated pollution and reference conditions, respectively. The presence of heavy metals and the levels of markers of oxidative stress (lipid hydroperoxide levels, thiol groups, superoxide dismutase activity and expression of heat shock protein 70, heme oxygenase and superoxide dismutase) were evaluated, and we measured in field-collected needles the response to environmental pollution. P. pinaster Ait. collected from a site characterized by industrial pollution including heavy metals had elevated stress response as indicated by significantly elevated lipid hydroperoxide levels and decreased thiol groups. In particular, we observed that following a chronic chemical exposure, P. pinaster Ait. showed significantly increased expression of heat shock protein 70, heme oxygenase and superoxide dismutase. This increased expression may have protective effects against oxidative stress and represents an adaptative cellular defence mechanism. These results suggest that evaluation of heme oxygenase, heat shock protein 70 and superoxide dismutase expression in P. pinaster Ait. could represent a useful tool for monitoring environmental contamination of a region and to better understand mechanisms involved in plant defence and stress tolerance.     

Stereochemistry of LinB-catalyzed biotransformation of δ-HBCD to 1R,2R,5S,6R,9R,10S-pentabromocyclododecanol

The haloalkane dehalogenase LinB from Sphingobium indicum B90A converts β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), the most persistent HCH stereoisomer, to mono- and dihydroxylated metabolites. Recently, we reported that LinB also transforms α-, β- and γ-hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), which are structurally related to HCHs. Here, we show that LinB catalyzes the hydroxylation of δ-HBCD to two pentabromocyclododecanols (PBCDOHs) and two tetrabromocyclododecadiols (TBCDDOHs). The stereochemistry of this enzymatic transformation was deduced from XRD crystal structure data of the substrate δ-HBCD and α₂-PBCDOH, one of the biotransformation products. Five stereocenters of δ-HBCD are unchanged but the one at C6 is converted to an alcohol with inversion from S- to R-configuration in a nucleophilic, S_N2-like substitution reaction. Only α₂-PBCDOH with the 1R,2R,5S,6R,9R,10S-configuration is obtained but not its enantiomer. With only two of the 64 PBCDOHs formed, these transformations indeed are regio- and stereoselective. A conformational analysis revealed that the triple-turn motive, which is predominant in δ-HBCD and in several other HBCD stereoisomers, is also found in the product. This shows that LinB preferentially converted reactive bromine atoms but not those in the conserved triple-turn motive. The widespread contamination with HCHs triggered the bacterial evolution of dehalogenases which acquired the ability to convert these pollutants and their metabolites. We here demonstrate that LinB of S. indicum also transforms HBCDs regio- and stereoselectively following a similar mechanism.     

Both trivalent and hexavalent chromium strongly alter in vitro germination and ultrastructure of kiwifruit pollen

Due to its widespread industrial use, chromium is considered a dangerous environmental pollutant. It is known to inhibit plant growth and development. The present study provides the first evidence of the toxicity of this metal on the male haploid generation of a higher plant. Both Cr(III) and Cr(VI) species, supplied as CrCl(3) and CrO(3), respectively, exerted a strong dose-dependent inhibitory effect on kiwifruit pollen tube emergence and growth. Cr(III) resulted more effective than Cr(VI) in the 16-75microM interval; moreover, complete inhibition of germination was attained at much lower doses than Cr(VI). Also tube morphology was affected. While the plasma membrane was still undamaged in the large majority of the treated pollen grains, dramatic ultrastructural alterations were induced by chromium including chromatin condensation, swelling of mitochondria, cytoplasmic vacuolization, and perturbed arrangement of endoplasmic reticulum cisternae. Thus, it seems that the impact of the two chromium species on kiwifruit pollen may result in severe compromission of both essential structures and functions of the male gametophyte.     

Differential Sensitivity of a Coccal Green Algal and a Cyanobacterial Species to Dissolved Natural Organic Matter (NOM) (8 pp)

Background

and Aim. In non-eutrophicated freshwaters, humic substances (HS) pose chemical stresses on aquatic organisms and, hence, separating sensitive from less sensitive or even tolerant species. One of the stresses, identified so far, is the reduction of photosynthetic oxygen production and reduction in growth in freshwater macrophytes and algae. In a previous paper, it has been shown that even closely related coccal green algae responded differently upon identical stress by HS, which is consistent with the hypothesis above. Due to their much simpler cellular ultrastructure, cyanobacteria are supposed to be more sensitive to HS exposure than eukaryote should be. One coccal green algal species (Desmodesmus communis) and one cyanobacterium (Chroococcus minutus) were exposed to four natural organic matter (NOM) isolates. One NOM has been isolated from a brown water lake (Schwarzer See) in Brandenburg State; three were obtained from a comprehensive Scandinavian NOM research project and originated from Norway (Birkenes), Finland (Hietajärvi), and Sweden (Svartberget).

Methods

Cultures of D. communis and C. minutus were obtained from the Culture Collection of Algae, Göttingen, and maintained in a common medium. The cultures were non-axenic. The algae and cyanobacteria were exposed under identical conditions to environmentally realistic NOM concentrations. Cell numbers were counted microscopically in Neugebauer cuvettes in triplicates. To avoid limitation by nutrient depletion, the experiments were terminated after 14 to 15 days. Until culture day 12, no growth limitation has been observed in the controls.

Results

All NOM isolates modulated the growth of the algae and cyanobacteria. During the early culture days, there was a slight growth promotion with the coccal green alga and to a much lesser degree with the cyanobacterium. Yet, the major effect were significant reductions in cell yield in both primary producer cultures. C. minutus was much more affected than D. communis. This applies particularly to the three tested Scandinavian NOM isolates, which were effective at concentrations even below 1 mg L-1 DOC.

Discussion

The growth promoting effect may be due to an increase in bioavailability of some trace nutrients in the presence of NOM, the release of some growth promoting substances by microbial or photochemical processing of the NOM, and/or a hormetic effect. The growth reducing effect can be explained as a herbicide-like mode of action that affects the photosystem II most prevalent by blocking the electron transport chain, absorption of electrons, or production of an internal oxidative stress after processing the bioconcentrated HS. Furthermore, it may be postulated that also photo-toxicity of these HS in the algal cells contributes to the overall toxicity; however, experimental evidence is lacking so far.

Conclusions

Upon exposure to HS, cyanobacteria appear to be much more sensitive than coccal green algae and respond in growth reduction. This high sensitivity of cyanobacteria to HS may explain phytoplankton patterns in the field. Eutrophic, humic-rich lakes do not support the cyanobacterial blooms characteristic of eutrophic, but humic-poor lakes. In the humic-rich systems, raphidophytes or, less frequent, specific coccal greens are more common. Obviously, cyanobacteria appear to be unable to make advantage of their accessory pigments (phycocyanin) to exploit the reddish light prevailing in humic-rich lakes.

Recommendation

. At present, no effective structure can be figured out which may be responsible for the adverse effect on the cyanobacterial species. It is reserved to future research whether or not HS may be applied more specifically (for instance, with elevated moieties of the effective structures) as a natural geochemical to combat cyanobacterial blooms.

     

Removal of perfluorinated surfactants by sorption onto granular activated carbon, zeolite and sludge

Perfluorinated surfactants are emerging pollutants of increasing public health and environmental concern due to recent reports of their world-wide distribution, environmental persistence and bioaccumulation potential. Treatment methods for the removal of anionic perfluorochemical (PFC) surfactants from industrial effluents are needed to minimize the environmental release of these pollutants. Removal of PFC surfactants from aqueous solutions by sorption onto various types of granular activated carbon was investigated. Three anionic PFC surfactants, i.e., perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS), were evaluated for the ability to adsorb onto activated carbon. Additionally, the sorptive capacity of zeolites and sludge for PFOS was compared to that of granular activated carbon. Adsorption isotherms were determined at constant ionic strength in a pH 7.2 phosphate buffer at 30 degrees C. Sorption of PFOS onto activated carbon was stronger than PFOA and PFBS, suggesting that the length of the fluorocarbon chain and the nature of the functional group influenced sorption of the anionic surfactants. Among all adsorbents evaluated in this study, activated carbon (Freundlich K(F) values=36.7-60.9) showed the highest affinity for PFOS at low aqueous equilibrium concentrations, followed by the hydrophobic, high-silica zeolite NaY (Si/Al 80, K(F)=31.8), and anaerobic sludge (K(F)=0.95-1.85). Activated carbon also displayed a superior sorptive capacity at high soluble concentrations of the surfactant (up to 80 mg l(-1)). These findings indicate that activated carbon adsorption is a promising treatment technique for the removal of PFOS from dilute aqueous streams.     

Bioremediation of aquaculture wastewater from Mugil cephalus (Linnaeus, 1758) with different microalgae species

Current aquaculture practices have a detrimental impact on the environment, in particular due to the release of high concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus that can induce eutrophication. This study investigates and compares the capacity of three microalgae species Tetraselmis suecica, Isochrysis galbana and Dunaliella tertiolecta, in the bioremediation of grey mullet Mugil cephalus wastewater. The experiment was conducted in batch conditions for 7 days using completely mixed bubble column photobioreactors. After two days, T. suecica and D. tertiolecta were able to remove more than 90% of dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) and dissolved inorganic phosphorous (DIP), whereas I. galbana removed only 32% and 79% of DIN and DIP, respectively. A higher biomass yield resulted for T. suecica (603?±?34?mg/L, mean?±?SE). This study confirms the potential to employ T. suecica in an Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture system for bioremediation of wastewater and identifies D. tertiolecta as another valid candidate species. Moreover, these species can growth in unsterilized culture media, and this reduces energy consumption, costs and efforts.     

Specificity of LSU rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes for Pseudo-nitzschia species tested through dot-blot hybridisation

In the scope of the development of a microarray PhyloChip for the detection of toxic phytoplankton species, we designed a large series of probes specific against targets in the nuclear large subunit (LSU) rRNA of a range of Pseudo-nitzschia species and spotted these onto the microarray. Hybridisation with rRNA extracted from monoclonal cultures and from plankton samples revealed many cross-reactions. In the present work, we tested the functionality and specificity of 23 of these probes designed against ten of the species, using a dot-blot procedure. In this case, probe specificity is tested against the target region in PCR products of the LSU rRNA gene marker region blotted on nitrocellulose filters. Each filter was incubated with a species-specific oligoprobe. Eleven of the tested probes showed specific responses, identifying seven Pseudo-nitzschia species. The other probes showed non-specific responses or did not respond at all. Results of dot-blot hybridisations are more specific than those obtained with the microarray approach and the possible reasons for this are discussed.