International Environmental Agreements: Design of Optimal Transfers Under Heterogeneity

International environmental agreements (IEAs) can coordinate abatement of transboundary pollutants. This paper investigates how heterogeneous countries facing a stock pollutant might structure such an agreement. In particular, we examine how an IEA might be implemented with a set of monetary transfers. The focus is on transfers that are time invariant, linear in emissions, and consistent with budget balance. There is a range of such schemes that would induce efficient emissions. We provide a simple and intuitive characterization of these penalties and describe how specific proposals might be chosen in order to facilitate compliance and implementation. Our proposals are illustrated with a simple example. We show that heterogeneity reduces the scope for penalty schemes to jointly satisfy desirable properties.     

Environmental pollution,energy import,and economic growth: evidence of sustainable growth in South Africa and Nigeria

Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Simultaneous achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs), especially energy efficiency (SDG 7), economic growth (SDG 8), and pollution...     

Tolerating an infection: an indirect benefit of co-founding queen associations in the ant Lasius niger

Pathogens exert a strong selection pressure on organisms to evolve effective immune defences. In addition to individual immunity, social organisms can act cooperatively to produce collective defences. In many ant species, queens have the option to found a colony alone or in groups with other, often unrelated, conspecifics. These associations are transient, usually lasting only as long as each queen benefits from the presence of others. In fact, once the first workers emerge, queens fight to the death for dominance. One potential advantage of co-founding may be that queens benefit from collective disease defences, such as mutual grooming, that act against common soil pathogens. We test this hypothesis by exposing single and co-founding queens to a fungal parasite, in order to assess whether queens in co-founding associations have improved survival. Surprisingly, co-foundresses exposed to the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium did not engage in cooperative disease defences, and consequently, we find no direct benefit of multiple queens on survival. However, an indirect benefit was observed, with parasite-exposed queens producing more brood when they co-founded, than when they were alone. We suggest this is due to a trade-off between reproduction and immunity. Additionally, we report an extraordinary ability of the queens to tolerate an infection for long periods after parasite exposure. Our study suggests that there are no social immunity benefits for co-founding ant queens, but that in parasite-rich environments, the presence of additional queens may nevertheless improve the chances of colony founding success.     

Triterpene saponin hemi-biosynthesis of a leaf beetle’s (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Platyphora kollari</Emphasis>) defensive secretion

The adults of the leaf beetle Platyphora kollari (Chrysomelidae) are able to metabolise the oleanane triterpene β-amyrin (1) into the glycoside 3-O-β-d-glucopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-d-glucuronopyranosyl-hederagenin (2) that is stored in their defensive glands. The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that oleanolic acid (3) is an intermediate in the conversion of 1 into 2 and to check whether the sequestration of pentacyclic triterpenes is selective in favour of β-amyrin (1). To this end, adults of P. kollari were fed with Ipomoea batatas leaf disks painted with a solution of [2,2,3-²H₃]oleanolic acid or [2,2,3-²H₃]α-amyrin and the secretion of their defensive glands analysed by HPLC–ESIMS. The data presented in this work indicated that the first step of the transformation of β-amyrin (1) into the sequestered glycoside 2 is its oxidation into oleanolic acid (3) and that this conversion is selective but not specific in favour of β-amyrin (1).     

Parasitoid-induced mortality of Araneus omnicolor (Araneae, Araneidae) by Hymenoepimecis sp. (Hymenoptera, Ichneumonidae) in southeastern Brazil

All species included in the Polysphincta genus-group develop as ectophagous parasitoids of active spiders, killing their hosts prior to pupation. However, little information regarding natural history and ovipositing behavior of most species are available. In this study we inspected 85 webs of Araneus omnicolor to evaluate the frequency of parasitism and host size preferences of the wasp Hymenoepimecis sp. We also described the web characteristics of normal and parasitized spiders and the wasp ovipositing behavior. About 41% of the adult females of A. omnicolor inspected were parasitized. The highest incidence of parasitism was observed among relatively small females while no egg or larva was found in large individuals. Araneus omnicolor builds a strong web composed of an orb and barrier threads, where the spider rests within a curled leaf. The parasitoid larva builds its cocoon within this refuge, and modified cocoon webs were not observed. The ovipositing behavior of Hymenoepimecis sp. was very similar to that of Hymenoepimecis argyraphaga parasitizing Leucauge argyra, including the position of the sting, the killing of a previously attached larva, and the expelling of the egg from the base of the ovipositor.     

Impact on sward composition and stock performance of grazing Molinia-dominant grassland

A comparative experiment was conducted to test the extent to which grazing of rank Molinia caerulea-dominated grassland increases botanical diversity and improves animal performance. The study was carried out on an area of under-grazed Molinia-dominant pasture that had not been stocked for 20 years. Three treatments were compared from 2001 until 2008: (1) no grazing, (2) grazing by Welsh Mountain sheep and (3) grazing by Welsh Black heifers. Patterns of change in sward surface composition across the grazing season were consistent with greater consumption of Molinia by the cattle, but there was little evidence of management regime influencing changes in sward composition year-on-year. There was a significant effect of year on animal performance (P < 0.001). Although the growth rates of the heifers improved over the course of the first three years of the experiment, this performance was not sustained. In contrast, any weight changes for the sheep were positive. The results highlight the slow pace of change within upland swards, and the need to develop site-specific grazing guidelines.     

Spatial and temporal variations in groundwater nitrate at an intensive dairy farm in south-east Ireland: Insights from stable isotope data

Achievement of at least “good ecological status” in all waterbodies under the EU Water Framework Directive by 2015 will in some cases be a challenge. The twin challenge is to manage expectations of policy makers for such waterbodies as to a realistic length of time required for improvement in water quality. Hence, understanding the source, transformation processes and residence time of nitrate in a hydrological system is an essential part of meeting such challenges. On a dairy farm with 24 shallow groundwater wells, the dual isotopic composition of nitrate (δ¹⁵N and δ¹⁸O) was used to clarify nitrate sources, to assess spatial and temporal variability in nitrate concentrations and to determine if and where denitrification was occurring. Vertical travel time was estimated to correlate nitrate concentrations with management practices. Organically derived nitrogen was the predominant source contributing to groundwater nitrate concentrations. Denitrification was identified as prevalent within specific regions of the study site. The distinct low temporal variability in the isotopic data suggests constancy among nitrate sources and processes over time across the study site. Vertical travel times of up to 3 years were estimated on site indicating the influence of recent management practices on nitrate concentrations. Very slow horizontal migration of groundwater (decades) indicates a legacy of older management practices. Stable isotope techniques, together with an understanding of time lag, provide an extra mechanism to test the efficacy of monitoring and mitigation programmes.     

Indigenous Systems of Forest Classification: Understanding Land Use Patterns and the Role of NTFPs in Shifting Cultivators’ Subsistence Economies

This article discusses the system of classification of forest types used by the Pwo Karen in Thung Yai Naresuan Wildlife Sanctuary in western Thailand and the role of nontimber forest products (NTFPs), focusing on wild food plants, in Karen livelihoods. The article argues that the Pwo Karen have two methods of forest classification, closely related to their swidden farming practices. The first is used for forest land that has been, or can be, swiddened, and classifies forest types according to growth conditions. The second system is used for land that is not suitable for cultivation and looks at soil properties and slope. The article estimates the relative importance of each forest type in what concerns the collection of wild food plants. A total of 134 wild food plant species were recorded in December 2004. They account for some 80–90% of the amount of edible plants consumed by the Pwo Karen, and have a base value of Baht 11,505 per year, comparable to the cash incomes of many households. The article argues that the Pwo Karen reliance on NTFPs has influenced their land-use and forest management practices. However, by restricting the length of the fallow period, the Thai government has caused ecological changes that are challenging the ability of the Karen to remain subsistence oriented. By ignoring shifting cultivators’ dependence on such products, the involvement of governments in forest management, especially through restrictions imposed on swidden farming practices, is likely to have a considerable impact on the livelihood strategies of these communities.     

Use of Artificial Roost Structures by Bats at the Indianapolis International Airport

From 1992–1996, 3204 artificial roosts of 9 types were placed in woodlots near Indianapolis International Airport in an effort to provide habitat for the federally-endangered Indiana myotis (Myotis sodalis) and to determine the feasibility of using these structures to manage bats in a rapidly developing suburban area. We surveyed these structures at least annually during 1992–1999 and found only northern myotis (Myotis septentrionalis) regularly using the structures. Four other species were occasionally found using structures including big brown bats (Eptesicus fuscus, n = 14 individuals), little brown myotis (Myotis lucifugus, n = 2), Indiana myotis (Myotis sodalis, n = 2), and one silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans). Single, triple, and Missouri-style batboxes were almost always used, rather than the six other types of experimental roosts that had been in place. However, after 10 years in place, it appears that Indiana bats are acclimated to boxes, as 6 of them were being used rather regularly by Indiana myotis. Bat boxes can provide roosting habitat for some species under conditions where few suitable roosts exist, but assuring an abundance of natural habitats is usually more desirable for conservation of tree-roosting bats.     

Phosphorus fractions in manure from growing pigs receiving diets containing micronized peas and supplemental enzymes

Different livestock feeds manipulations have been reported to reduce the total P concentration in manure. Information on the influence of these dietary manipulation strategies on the forms of P in manure is, however, limited. This study was, therefore, conducted to investigate the effect of diet manipulation through feed micronization and enzyme supplementation on the forms of P in swine manure. Eight growing pigs were fed four diets: barley-raw pea (BRP), barley-micronized pea (BMP), barley-raw pea with enzyme (BRPE), and barley-micronized pea with enzyme (BMPE) in a 4 x 4 Latin square design. Because we are interested in the effect of enzyme cocktail and pea micronization on manure P, we did not reduce the non-phytate P with enzyme addition in this study. The fecal material and urine were collected and analyzed for total P. Fecal material was fractionated to determine the total P in H2O-, NaHCO3-, NaOH-, and HCl-extractable fractions. The total P in the residual fractions was also determined. About 98% of the total P excreted by the pigs was found in the fecal material. Inclusion of micronized pea in pig diet did not have any significant effect (p > 0.1) on either the total P or the different P fractions in the manure. The labile P (the sum of H2O-P and NaHCO3-P) was significantly reduced (p < 0.05) by the addition of enzyme to swine diets. Pigs fed the BRPE and BMPE had 14 and 18% lower labile P, respectively, compared with pigs fed the BRP. Enzyme addition to pig diets reduced not only the total P in manure, but also the labile P fraction, which is of great environmental concern. Thus, the potential of P loss to runoff and the subsequent eutrophication can be reduced by enzyme addition to pig diets.