Does the Harvard/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Ambient Particle Concentrator change the toxic potential of particles?

Inhalation exposure to urban air particles is known to increase morbidity in humans and animals. Our group utilizes the Harvard/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Ambient Particle Concentrator (HAPC) to generate concentrated aerosols of outdoor air particles for experimental exposures. We have reported increased pathologic responses to inhalation of concentrated urban air particles and identified silicon (as silicate) as an element associated with many of these responses. Using silicate-rich Mt. St. Helen's volcanic ash (MSHA), we exposed three groups of Sprague-Dawley rats by inhalation for 6 hr to filtered air, MSHA, or MSHA passed though the HAPC. Twenty-four hours following exposure, bronchoalveolar lavage was performed to assess total cell count, differential cell count, protein, lactate dehydrogenase, and n-beta-glucosaminidase levels. Peripheral blood was examined for packed cell volume, total protein, total white cells, and differential cell count. Morphologic studies localized particles in the lung and assessed pulmonary vasculature. No significant differences were observed among any of the groups in any parameter measured including morphometric analysis of pulmonary vasoconstriction. Scanning electron microscopy and X-ray analysis identified particles as silicates typical of MSHA throughout the lung. These findings suggest that particles passing through the HAPC have no change in their toxic potential in an exposure setting where particle deposition in the lung has occurred.     

Trimethylbenzoic acids as metabolite signatures in the biogeochemical evolution of an aquifer contaminated with jet fuel hydrocarbons

Evolution of trimethylbenzoic acids in the KC-135 aquifer at the former Wurtsmith Air Force Base (WAFB), Oscoda, MI was examined to determine the functionality of trimethylbenzoic acids as key metabolite signatures in the biogeochemical evolution of an aquifer contaminated with JP-4 fuel hydrocarbons. Changes in the composition of trimethylbenzoic acids and the distribution and concentration profiles exhibited by 2,4,6- and 2,3,5-trimethylbenzoic acids temporally and between multilevel wells reflect processes indicative of an actively evolving contaminant plume. The concentration levels of trimethylbenzoic acids were 3-10 orders higher than their tetramethylbenzene precursors, a condition attributed to slow metabolite turnover under sulfidogenic conditions. The observed degradation of tetramethylbenzenes into trimethylbenzoic acids obviates the use of these alkylbenzenes as non-labile tracers for other degradable aromatic hydrocarbons, but provides rare field evidence on the range of high molecular weight alkylbenzenes and isomeric assemblages amenable to anaerobic degradation in situ. The coupling of actual tetramethylbenzene loss with trimethylbenzoic acid production and the general decline in the concentrations of these compounds demonstrate the role of microbially mediated processes in the natural attenuation of hydrocarbons and may be a key indicator in the overall rate of hydrocarbon degradation and the biogeochemical evolution of the KC-135 aquifer.     

A study on emission of phthalate esters from plastic materials using a passive flux sampler

Phthalate esters are used as plasticizer in many plastics, and several studies have shown their toxicity. Phthalate esters are gradually emitted over time, and so it is conceivable that they pose a significant health risk. This study aims to investigate the temperature dependence of the emissions of various phthalate esters and to estimate the health risks of these emissions at various temperatures. A passive-type sampler was developed to measure the flux of phthalate esters from the surface of plastic materials. With this sampler, we examined three widely used plastic materials: synthetic leather, wallpaper and vinyl flooring. The observed maximum emissions of diethyl phthalate, dibutyl phthalate, and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) from these materials at 20°C were 0.89, 0.77, and 14 μg m⁻² h⁻¹, respectively. Emissions at 80°C were 2.8, 4.5×10², and 1.5×10³ μg m⁻² h⁻¹, respectively. The results showed this temperature dependence is determined primarily by the type of phthalate ester and less so by the type of material. The estimation from the results of temperature dependence indicated the concentration of DEHP in a vehicle left out in the sunshine during the day can exceed the recommended levels of Japan Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare.     

Local-scale fluxes of carbon dioxide in urban environments: methodological challenges and results from Chicago

Much attention is being directed to the measurement and modeling of surface-atmosphere exchanges of CO2 for different surface types. However, as yet, few measurements have been conducted in cities, even though these environments are widely acknowledged to be major sources of anthropogenic CO2. This paper highlights some of the challenges facing micrometeorologists attempting to use eddy covariance techniques to directly monitor CO2 fluxes in urban environments, focusing on the inherent variability within and between urban areas, and the importance of scale and the appropriate height of measurements. Results from a very short-term study of CO2 fluxes, undertaken in Chicago, Illinois in the summer of 1995, are presented. Mid-afternoon minimum CO2 concentrations and negative fluxes are attributed to the strength of biospheric photosynthesis and strong mixing of local anthropogenic sources in a deep mixed layer. Poor night-time atmospheric mixing, lower mixed layer depths, biospheric respiration, and continued missions from mobile and fixed anthropogenic sources, account for the night-time maxima in CO2 concentrations. The need for more, longer-term, continuous eddy covariance measurements is stressed.     

Comparison of episodic acidification in Canada, Europe and the United States

Episodic acidification is practically a ubiquitous process in streams and drainage lakes in Canada, Europe and the United States. Depressions of pH are often smaller in systems with low pre-episode pH levels. Studies on European surface waters have reported episodes most frequently with minimum pH levels below 4.5. In Canada and the United States, studies have also reported a number of systems that have had minimum pH levels below 4.5. In all areas, change in water flowpath during hydrological events is a major determinant of episode characteristics. Episodic acidification is also controlled by a combination of other natural and anthropogenic factors. Base cation decreases are an important contributor to episodes in circumneutral streams and lakes. Sulphate pulses are generally important contributors to episodic acidification in Europe and Canada. Nitrate pulses are generally more important to episodic acidification in the Northeast United States. Increases in organic acids contribute to episodes in some streams in all areas. The sea-salt effect is important in near-coastal streams and lakes. In Canada, Europe and the United States, acidic deposition has increased the severity (minimum pH reached) of episodes in some streams and lakes.     

Cadmium availability to the cyanobacterium Synechocystis aquatilis in solutions containing chloride

Availability of cadmium to Synechocystis aquatilis (estimated by 109Cd sorption and cadmium toxicity-14C method) in solutions containing cadmium and complexing (KCl) or non-complexing (KNO3) salts, in the range of 0-0.5 m was investigated. Both cadmium surface adsorption and transport into the cells were lower in solutions containing cadmium chloride complexes (CdCl+, CdCl2, CdCl3-) than in those containing cadmium in the form of Cd2+. Also, cadmium toxicity in solutions of higher KCl concentrations, in which CdCl+ and CdCl2 forms predominated, was significantly limited.     

Surfactant enhanced recovery of tetrachloroethylene from a porous medium containing low permeability lenses. 1. Experimental studies

A matrix of batch, column and two-dimensional (2-D) box experiments was conducted to investigate the coupled effects of rate-limited solubilization and layering on the entrapment and subsequent recovery of a representative dense NAPL, tetrachloroethylene (PCE), during surfactant flushing. Batch experiments were performed to determine the equilibrium solubilization capacity of the surfactant, polyoxyethylene (20) sorbitan monooleate (Tween 80), and to measure fluid viscosity, density and interfacial tension. Results of one-dimensional column studies indicated that micellar solubilization of residual PCE was rate-limited at Darcy velocities ranging from 0.8 to 8.2 cm/h and during periods of flow interruption. Effluent concentration data were used to develop effective mass transfer coefficient (Ke) expressions that were dependent upon the Darcy velocity and duration of flow interruption. To simulate subsurface heterogeneity, 2-D boxes were packed with layers of F-70 Ottawa sand and Wurtsmith aquifer material within 20-30 mesh Ottawa sand. A 4% Tween 80 solution was then flushed through PCE-contaminated boxes at several flow velocities, with periods of flow interruption. Effluent concentration data and visual observations indicated that both rate-limited solubilization and pooling of PCE above the fine layers reduced PCE recovery to levels below those anticipated from batch and column measurements. These experimental results demonstrate the potential impact of both mass transfer limitations and subsurface layering on the recovery of PCE during surfactant enhanced aquifer remediation.     

ESF Workshop

Dioxin and PCB monitoring programs for food and feeding stuff in most countries of the world, including many European Countries are currently inadequate. Better control of food production lines and food processing procedures is needed to minimize entry of dioxin to the food chain and will help to avoid dioxin contamination accidents. This would also improve the ability to trace back a possible contamination to its source. European guidelines for monitoring programs should be established to ensure comparable and meaningful results. These guidelines should define the minimum requirements for the design of monitoring programs, analytical methods, and quality assurance. Though data from Northern Europe shows that the general population exposure to dioxin and PCB has decreased during the last ten years these compounds continue to be a risk of accidental contamination of the food chain. The most prominent recent example is the Belgian dioxin contamination of feeding stuff in 1999. The Belgian dioxin contamination was not detected due to dioxin monitoring programs but by their direct biological effects seen in animals. Four other cases of dioxin contamination have been detected in Europe since 1997 due to local monitoring programs. One of them (citrus pulp pellets 1998) was in a much larger scale than the Belgian dioxin contamination. The general population's exposure to dioxins and PCBs is still in the same range (1-4 pg WHO-TEQ/kg body weight and day) as the recently revised WHO tolerable daily intake (TDI). There is concern that short-term high level exposure to dioxins, furans, and PCB may cause biological effects on the human fetal development and further research is required. Further actions to control sources building on considerable advances already made in many countries may need to be supplemented by measures to prevent direct contamination of feeding stuff or food to reduce general population exposure further.     

Formation of PCDDs and PCDFs during the combustion of polyvinylidene chloride

In laboratory-scale combustion of polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) with a quartz tubular furnace designed and fabricated to provide the desired combustion temperature and mixing state of combustion gas with air, it was found that at 800 degrees C or higher the level of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/polychlorinated dibenzofurans [corrected] (PCDDs/PCDFs) resulting from PVDC combustion was no higher than that from heating air alone, and thus far below the levels which resulted from PVDC combustion at 750 degrees C or lower. The results provide the first laboratory confirmation of the relation between PVDC incineration temperature and PCDD/PCDF formation, and of the primary importance of high temperature, turbulence for mixing between air and combustion gas, and sufficient residence time, as governing factors for the minimization of PCDD/PCDF formation in municipal solid waste incinerators.     

Disinfection by-products in Finnish drinking waters

Disinfection by-products (DBPs) were measured in plant effluents of 35 Finnish waterworks, which utilized different treatment processes and raw water sources. DBPs were measured also from the distribution systems of three waterworks. Di- and trichloroacetic acids, and chloroform were the major DBPs found in treated water samples. The concentration of six haloacetic acids (HAA6) exceeded the concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs). Chlorinated drinking waters (DWs) originating from surface waters contained the highest concentration of HAA6 and THMs: 108 and 26 microg/l, respectively. The lowest concentrations of DBPs were measured from ozonated and/or activated carbon filtrated and chloraminated DWs. Higher concentrations of HAA6, THMs, and adsorbable organic halogens were measured in summer compared to winter. The levels of chlorinated acetic acids, chloroform, and bromodichloromethane correlated positively with mutagenicity. Past mutagenicity levels of DWs were examined. A major reduction in the use of prechlorination, increased use of chloramine disinfection, and better removal of organic carbon were the most important reasons for the 69% decrease in mutagenicity from 1985 to 1994.