Carbon dynamics of forests in Washington, U.S.A.: 21st century projections based on climate-driven changes in fire regimes

During the 21st century, climate-driven changes in fire regimes will be a key agent of change in forests of the U.S. Pacific Northwest (PNW). Understanding the response of forest carbon (C) dynamics to increases in fire will help quantify limits on the contribution of forest C storage to climate change mitigation and prioritize forest types for monitoring C storage and fire management to minimize C loss. In this study, we used projections of 21st century area burned to explore the consequences of changes in fire regimes on C dynamics in forests of Washington State. We used a novel empirical approach that takes advantage of chronosequences of C pools and fluxes and statistical properties of fire regimes to explore the effects of shifting age class distributions on C dynamics. Forests of the western Cascades are projected to be more sensitive to climate-driven increases in fire, and thus projected changes in C dynamics, than forests of the eastern Cascades. In the western Cascades, mean live biomass C is projected to decrease by 24-37%, and coarse woody debris (CWD) biomass C by 15-25% for the 2040s. Loss of live biomass C is projected to be lower for forests of the eastern Cascades and Okanogan Highlands (17-26%), and CWD biomass is projected to increase. Landscape mean net primary productivity is projected to increase in wet low-elevation forests of the western Cascades, but decrease elsewhere. These forests, and moist forests of the Okanogan Highlands, are projected to have the greatest percentage increases in consumption of live biomass. Percentage increases in consumption of CWD biomass are greater than 50% for all regions and up to four times greater than increases in consumption of live biomass. Carbon sequestration in PNW forests will be highly sensitive to increases in fire, suggesting a cautious approach to managing these forests for C sequestration to mitigate anthropogenic CO2 emissions.     

Assessing conservation opportunity on private land: socio-economic, behavioral, and spatial dimensions

This study presents a method for assessing conservation opportunity on private land based on landholders' socio-economic, behavioral, and farm characteristics. These characteristics include age, gender, education, level of off-farm income, farm size, proportion of remnant native vegetation on-farm, and ecological value of native vegetation on-farm. A sample of landholders who own greater than 2 ha of land in the South Australian Murray-Darling Basin region were sent a mail-based survey about their values and preferences for environmental management (N = 659, 52% response). Cross-tabulations and ANOVA statistical analysis techniques were used to compare the socio-economic attributes across three landholder classes: disengaged, moderately engaged, and highly engaged in native vegetation planting. Results indicate that highly engaged landholders were more likely to be female, formally educated, hobby farmers who managed small parcels of land and have high off-farm incomes, whereas disengaged landholders held significantly stronger farming connections (more farming experience, family have lived on the farm for more generations). Spatial analysis revealed area-specific differences in conservation opportunity and conservation priority. In some areas, properties of high ecological value were managed by highly engaged landholders, but nearby properties of high value were managed by moderately engaged or disengaged landholders. Environmental managers therefore cannot assume areas of high conservation priority will be areas of high conservation opportunity. At the regional scale, the potential for revegetation seems most promising within the moderately engaged landholder group considering the vast amount of land managed by this group in areas of high ecological value, particularly within the less represented Mallee and Coorong and Rangelands sub-regions. We suggest that incentive schemes which purchase conservation need to be targeted at disengaged landholders; mentoring schemes led by commercial farmers highly engaged in native vegetation planting should be directed at moderately engaged landholders, and; awards programs which acknowledge conservation successes should be targeted at highly engaged landholders.     

Acid Orange 7 degradation using methane as the sole carbon source and electron donor

• AO7 degradation was coupled with anaerobic methane oxidation. • Higher concentration of AO7 inhibited the degradation. • The maximum removal rate of AO7 reached 280 mg/(L·d) in HfMBR. • ANME-2d dominated the microbial community in both batch reactor and HfMBR. • ANME-2d alone or synergistic with the partner bacteria played a significant role. Azo dyes are widely applied in the textile industry but are not entirely consumed during the dyeing process and can thus be discharged to the environment in wastewater. However, azo dyes can be degraded using various electron donors, and in this paper, Acid Orange 7 (AO7) degradation performance is investigated using methane (CH₄) as the sole electron donor. Methane has multiple sources and is readily available and inexpensive. Experiments using ¹³C-labeled isotopes showed that AO7 degradation was coupled with anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) and, subsequently, affected by the initial concentrations of AO7. Higher concentrations of AO7 could inhibit the activity of microorganisms, which was confirmed by the long-term performance of AO7 degradation, with maximum removal rates of 8.94 mg/(L·d) in a batch reactor and 280 mg/(L·d) in a hollow fiber membrane bioreactor (HfMBR). High-throughput sequencing using 16S rRNA genes showed that Candidatus Methanoperedens, affiliated to ANME-2d, dominated the microbial community in the batch reactor and HfMBR. Additionally, the relative abundance of Proteobacteria bacteria (Phenylobacterium, Pseudomonas, and Geothermobacter) improved after AO7 degradation. This outcome suggested that ANME-2d alone, or acting synergistically with partner bacteria, played a key role in the process of AO7 degradation coupled with AOM.     

Nutrient transfer in a marine mutualism: patterns of ammonia excretion by anemonefish and uptake by giant sea anemones

Many symbioses involve multiple partners in complex, multi-level associations, yet little is known concerning patterns of nutrient transfer in multi-level marine mutualisms. We used the anemonefish symbiosis as a model system to create a balance sheet for nitrogen production and transfer within a three-way symbiotic system. We quantified diel patterns in excretion of ammonia by anemonefish and subsequent absorption by host sea anemones and zooxanthellae under laboratory conditions. Rates of ammonia excretion by the anemonefish Amphiprion bicinctus varied from a high of 1.84 μmole g⁻¹ h⁻¹ at 2 h after feeding, to a basal rate of 0.50 μmole g⁻¹ h⁻¹ at 24–36 h since the last meal. Conversely, host sea anemones Entacmaea quadricolor absorbed ammonia at a rate of 0.10 μmole g⁻¹ h⁻¹ during the daytime in ammonia-enriched seawater, but during the night reduced their absorption rate to near zero, indicating that ammonia uptake was driven by zooxanthella photosynthesis. When incubated together, net ammonia excretion was virturally zero, indicating that host anemones absorbed most of the ammonia produced by resident fish. Adult anemonefish weighed about 11 g under laboratory conditions, but on the coral reef may reach up to 64 g, resulting in a maximal potential ammonia load of >200 μmole h⁻¹ produced by two adult fish during daylight hours. In contrast, host sea anemones weighed about 47 g in the laboratory, but under field conditions, large individuals may reach 680 g, so their maximal ammonia clearance rates may reach about 70 μmole h⁻¹ during the daytime. As such, the ammonia load produced by adult anemonefish far exceeds the clearance rate of host anemones and zooxanthellae. Ammonia transfer likely occurs mainly during the daytime, when anemonefish consume zooplankton and excrete rapidly, and in turn the zooxanthellae are photosynthetically active and drive rapid ammonia uptake. We conclude that zooplanktivorous fishes that form mutualisms with coral reef cnidarians may serve as an important link between open water and benthic ecosystems, through the transfer of large quantities of nutrients to zooxanthellate hosts, thus enhancing coral reef productivity.     

Effects of timber harvesting on pond-breeding amphibian persistence: testing the evacuation hypothesis.

Numerous studies have documented the decline of amphibians following timber harvest. However, direct evidence concerning the mechanisms of population decline is lacking and hinders attempts to develop conservation or recovery plans and solutions for forest species. We summarized the mechanisms by which abundance of amphibians may initially decline following timber harvest into three testable hypotheses: (1) mortality, (2) retreat, and (3) evacuation. Here, we tested the evacuation hypothesis within a large-scale, replicated experiment. We used drift fences with pitfall traps to capture pond-breeding amphibians moving out of experimental clearcut quadrants and into control quadrants at four replicate arrays located within the Daniel Boone Conservation Area on the upper Ozark Plateau in Warren County, Missouri, USA. During the preharvest year of 2004, only 51.6% of the 312 individuals captured were moving out of pre-clearcut quadrants, and movement did not differ from random. In contrast, during both postharvest years of 2005 and 2006, the number of captures along the quadrant edge increased, and a higher proportion of individuals (59.9% and 56.6%, respectively, by year) were moving out of clearcut quadrants than entering. Salamanders moved out of clearcuts in large percentages (Ambystoma annulatum, 78.2% in 2005, 78.2% in 2006; A. maculatum, 64.0% in 2005, 57.1% in 2006). Frogs and toads also moved out of clearcut quadrants, but in lower percentages (Bufo americanus, 59.6% in 2005, 53.3% in 2006; Rana clamitans, 52.7% in 2006). Salamanders moved out of clearcuts with low-wood treatments more than out of clearcuts with high-wood treatments. Movement of salamanders out of clearcuts was independent of sex. Estimated movement out of clearcuts represented between 8.7% and 35.0% of the total breeding adults captured for two species of salamanders. Although we recognize that some portion of the amphibian population may retreat underground for short periods and others may not survive the effects of timber harvest, these data are the first direct evidence showing that individuals are capable of leaving clearcuts and shifting habitat use.     

The first commercial supercritical water oxidation sludge processing plant

Final disposal of sludge continues to be one of the more pressing problems for the wastewater treatment industry. Present regulations for municipal sludge have favored beneficial use, primarily in land application. However, several agencies and entities have warned of potential health risks associated with these methods. Hydrothermal oxidation provides an alternative method that addresses the health concerns associated with sludge disposal by completely converting all organic matter in the sludge to carbon dioxide, water, and other innocuous materials. A hydrothermal oxidation system using HydroProcessing, L.L.C.'s HydroSolids process has been installed at Harlingen, Texas to process up to 9.8 dry tons per day of sludge. Based on a literature review, this system is the largest hydrothermal oxidation system in the world, and the only one built specifically to process a sludge. Start up of Unit 1 of two units of the HTO system began in April 2001. Early results have indicated COD conversion rates in excess of 99.9%. Harlingen Waterworks System estimates that the HydroSolids system will cost less than other alternatives such as autothermal thermophilic aerobic digestion and more traditional forms of digestion that still require dewatering and final disposal. The Waterworks intends to generate income from the sale of energy in the form of hot water and the use of carbon dioxide from the HydroSolids process for neutralization of high pH industrial effluent. The Waterworks also expects to generate income from the treatment of septage and grease trap wastes.     

Using biopolymers to remove heavy metals from soil and water

Chemical remediation of soil may involve the use of harsh chemicals that generate waste streams, which may adversely affect the soil's integrity and ability to support vegetation. This article reviews the potential use of benign reagents, such as biopolymers, to extract heavy metals. The biopolymers discussed are chitin and chitosan, modified starch, cellulose, and polymer-containing algae.