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61.
The testing for an association between two categorical variables using count data is commonplace in the behavioral sciences.
Here, we present evidence that influential biostatistical textbooks give contradictory and incomplete advice on good practice
in the analysis of such contingency table data. We survey the statistical literature and offer guidance on such analyses.
Specifically, we call for greater use of exact testing rather than tests which use an asymptotic chi-squared distribution.
That is, we suggest that researchers take a conservative approach and only perform asymptotic testing where there is little
doubt that it is appropriate. We recommend a specific criterion for such decision-making. Where asymptotic testing is appropriate,
we recommend chi-squared over the G-test and recommend against the implementation of Yates (or any other) correction. We also
provide advice on the effective use of exact testing for associations in contingency tables. Lastly, we highlight issues that
need to be considered when using the commonly recommended Fisher’s exact test. 相似文献
62.
Pesticides, such as endosulfan, can enter surface waters such as lakes and rivers, potentially posing an ecological risk. Rotifers are a dominant zooplankton species in many inland freshwater lakes in Australia; such lakes can also experience increased salinities. Acute toxicity tests (24?h) were conducted to determine the toxicity of a commercial formaulation of endosulfan to the freshwater rotifer Philodina sp. and to investigate the influence of increasing salinity on endosulfan toxicity. Rotifers were found to be relatively tolerant to endosulfan with an EC50 of 1.75?mg?L?1 (a.i.), with results also suggesting that there are no interactive effects of salinity on endosulfan toxicity. 相似文献
63.
G. Allinson S.A. Salzman N. Turoczy M. Nishikawa U.S. Amarasinghe K.G.S. Nirbadha 《毒物与环境化学》2013,95(4):749-763
Samples of the muscle of two species of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus and O. niloticus; 17–20 cm length) were obtained from at least one reservoir in each of the six river basins (Aruvi Aru, Kala Oya, Kirindi Oya, Ma Oya, Mahaweli, and Walawe Ganga catchments) in Sri Lanka. The metals Ca, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, and Zn were consistently detected in the muscle tissue. Overall, there were few differences in the concentration of metals between the two species of fish, although there were also some statistically significant differences (p < 0.05) in the concentrations of some metals in fish obtained from some of the reservoirs. Aruvi Aru stands out as a river basin in which the two fish species have significantly lower concentration of metals when compared to other river basins. The concentration of the metals studied were below WHO and FSANZ guideline values for fish, suggesting that the consumption of the metals found in tilapia from these reservoirs poses little risk to human health. 相似文献
64.
Whilst a range of animals have been shown to respond behaviourally to components of the Earth’s magnetic field, evidence of
the value of this sensory perception for small animals advected by strong flows (wind/ocean currents) is equivocal. We added
geomagnetic directional swimming behaviour for North Atlantic loggerhead turtle hatchlings (Caretta
caretta) into a high-resolution (1/4°) global general circulation ocean model to simulate 2,925-year-long hatchling trajectories
comprising 355,875 locations. A little directional swimming (1–3 h per day) had a major impact on trajectories; simulated
hatchlings travelled further south into warmer water. As a result, thermal elevation of hatchling metabolic rates was estimated
to be between 63.3 and 114.5% after 220 days. We show that even small animals in strong flows can benefit from geomagnetic
orientation and thus the potential implications of directional swimming for other taxa may be broad. 相似文献
65.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are a primary tool for the stewardship, conservation, and restoration of marine ecosystems, yet 69% of global MPAs are only partially protected (i.e., are open to some form of fishing). Although fully protected areas have well-documented outcomes, including increased fish diversity and biomass, the effectiveness of partially protected areas is contested. Partially protected areas may provide benefits in some contexts and may be warranted for social reasons, yet social outcomes often depend on MPAs achieving their ecological goals to distinguish them from open areas and justify the cost of protection. We assessed the social perceptions and ecological effectiveness of 18 partially protected areas and 19 fully protected areas compared with 19 open areas along 7000 km of coast of southern Australia. We used mixed methods, gathering data via semistructured interviews, site surveys, and Reef Life (underwater visual census) surveys. We analyzed qualitative data in accordance with grounded theory and quantitative data with multivariate and univariate linear mixed-effects models. We found no social or ecological benefits for partially protected areas relative to open areas in our study. Partially protected areas had no more fish, invertebrates, or algae than open areas; were poorly understood by coastal users; were not more attractive than open areas; and were not perceived to have better marine life than open areas. These findings provide an important counterpoint to some large-scale meta-analyses that conclude partially protected areas can be ecologically effective but that draw this conclusion based on narrower measures. We argue that partially protected areas act as red herrings in marine conservation because they create an illusion of protection and consume scarce conservation resources yet provide little or no social or ecological gain over open areas. Fully protected areas, by contrast, have more fish species and biomass and are well understood, supported, and valued by the public. They are perceived to have better marine life and be improving over time in keeping with actual ecological results. Conservation outcomes can be improved by upgrading partially protected areas to higher levels of protection including conversion to fully protected areas. 相似文献
66.
67.
Graeme Hoyle 《Resources, Conservation and Recycling》1995,15(3-4)
The purpose of this paper is to review, and draw attention to, issues raised by the recycling of wrought aluminium from motor cars, even though the time horizon for significant arisings of such aluminium scrap is in the order of 20 years from now. Recycling of specific grades of wrought aluminium will be viable only when a means of positively identifying different types of scrap is available. A solution must be reliable, rapid, and low-cost; probably used in conjunction with a vehicle shredder. Such a system of identification will eliminate the need for costly hand-dismantling and segregation. Simple segregation of cast and wrought alloy will, however, be essential when wrought aluminium from car bodies dominates the scrap arisings. Such segregation will produce two high-value scrap products. The first of which will be similar to the A380 casting alloy specification, maintaining the current supply of this scrap, and the second will be a composite of wrought alloys. These issues are relevant to the aluminium scrap industry, which will have to accommodate future changes in the composition of the scrap it receives, and the motor industry, which may adopt in-house recycling of wrought alloy in order to offset the high purchase cost of aluminium. 相似文献
68.
Graeme Aplin 《The Environmentalist》2007,27(3):375-383
Studies of heritage at all levels of education can help foster understanding of other peoples and cultures and of the environmental
issues facing us all. Used judicially, such studies have a highly positive role to play in educating people everywhere to
contribute to making the world a sustainable and just environment for future generations. They provide examples or case studies,
in the pedagogical sense used by educationalists, that illustrate many valuable points that are central to a sound values
education contributing to ensuring that the public, and hopefully the political elite, are engaged in a push for such a just
and sustainable future. Individual examples of heritage sites, and especially of World Heritage properties, contain valuable
lessons of great pedagogical value. 相似文献
69.
Graeme Sherriff 《Local Environment》2015,20(12):1507-1530
In December 2008, the Greater Manchester electorate voted to reject a £3 billion package of transport measures that would have included investment in the conurbation's bus, tram and rail networks and walking and cycling infrastructure, together with, and partially funded by, the introduction of a congestion charge. The proposals followed a successful bid to the UK Government Transport Innovation Fund (TIF). High levels of car use present challenges to cities, and the TIF bid can be seen as an attempt to address these by promoting and facilitating a modal shift. The paper reflects on the debates surrounding the proposals, which led to a referendum. In particular, it explores the challenges of communicating complex, controversial plans in a fragmented and contested political arena. 相似文献
70.
Towell MG Bellarby J Paton GI Coulon F Pollard SJ Semple KT 《Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987)》2011,159(2):515-523
This study investigated the microbial degradation of 14C-labelled hexadecane, octacosane, phenanthrene and pyrene and considered how degradation might be optimised in three genuinely hydrocarbon-contaminated soils from former petroleum refinery sites. Hydrocarbon mineralisation by the indigenous microbial community was monitored over 23 d. Hydrocarbon mineralisation enhancement by nutrient amendment (biostimulation), hydrocarbon degrader addition (bioaugmentation) and combined nutrient and degrader amendment, was also explored. The ability of indigenous soil microflora to mineralise 14C-target hydrocarbons was appreciable; ≥16% mineralised in all soils. Generally, addition of nutrients or degraders increased the rates and extents of mineralisation of 14C-hydrocarbons. However, the addition of nutrients and degraders in combination had a negative effect upon 14C-octacosane mineralisation and resulted in lower extents of mineralisation in the three soils. In general, the rates and extents of mineralisation will be dependent upon treatment type, nature of the contamination and adaptation of the ingenious microbial community. 相似文献