Human health risk from Pb in urban street dust in northern UK cities

The presence of Pb in the environment can cause significant health problems. These issues are exasperated when the lead is in a more amenable form for potential ingestion. This study investigates the potential human health risk from Pb in urban street dusts. The lead levels in urban street dust in major city centres in northern UK have been compared to levels determined in 35 cities around the world. With a few exceptions, it was noted that the mean Pb levels in this study exceeded those found in other cities worldwide. Samples (n = 15) of urban street dust were collected across five city centres, and specifically in areas in which pedestrians are likely to concentrate, as well as near historical buildings. Typical total lead concentrations across all sampling sites ranged from 306 to 558 mg/kg. The human health risk was assessed using oral bioaccessibility testing of the urban street dust. The mean oral bioaccessibility data, irrespective of site and sample location, were in the range 43 ± 9 %. The total and bioaccessible concentrations of lead were compared to the estimated tolerable daily intake (TDI_oral) values based on unintentional soil/dust consumption. It is noted, in all cases, that the maximum estimated lead daily intake exceeded the TDI_oral. An alternative approach for assessing the daily intake is proposed based on the actual measured air quality in selected cities on the same day as the sampled urban dust.     

Gravity currents with double stratification: a numerical and analytical investigation

We consider high-Reynolds-number Boussinesq gravity current and intrusion systems in which both the ambient and the propagating “current” are linearly stratified. The main focus is on a current of fixed volume released from a rectangular lock; the height ratio of the fluids $H$ , the stratification parameter of the ambient $S$ , and the internal stratification parameter of the current, $\sigma $ , are quite general. We perform two-dimensional Navier–Stokes simulation and compare the results with those of a previously-published one-layer shallow-water model. The results provide insights into the behavior of the system and enhance the confidence in the approximate model while also revealing its limitations. The qualitative predictions of the model are confirmed, in particular: (1) there is an initial “slumping” stage of propagation with constant speed $u_N$ , after which $u_N$ decays with time; (2) for fixed $H$ and $S$ , the increase of $\sigma $ causes a slower propagation of the current; (3) for some combinations of the parameters $H,S, \sigma $ the fluid released from the lock lacks initially (or runs out quickly of) buoyancy “driving power” in the horizontal direction, and does not propagate like a gravity current. There is also a fair quantitative agreement between the predictions of the model and the simulations concerning the spread of the current.     

Morphological and statistical analysis of the impact of breakwaters under construction on a sand spit area (Douro River estuary)

The area of Cabedelo sand spit, located at the mouth of Douro River estuary (Porto, Portugal), reduced in recent decades. In order to study its evolution and also the impact of two breakwaters built to fix the river entrance, a dataset from 23 trimestral surveys using differential GPS techniques, conducted between 2001 and 2007, were considered. A time-series analysis and the estimation of relationships between Cabedelo spit area and several hydrodynamic parameters through statistical techniques were performed in order to determine which parameters have more influence in the Cabedelo spit behavior. From the time-series analysis a seasonal tendency is visible, with the lower values occurring in December and the higher values occurring in July. The estimation of a relationship between Cabedelo spit area and several independent variables reached better results when the dataset was divided in Part A (before the beginning of breakwaters construction) and Part B (during the breakwaters construction). An analysis of the morphological evolution of Cabedelo spit shoreline was also performed: (1) a simple analysis of retreat and accretion rates data with a geographical information system and (2) a more exhaustive analysis were performed using Empirical Orthogonal Functions (EOFs). The Cabedelo spit shoreline erosion occurs mostly on the West and North side, and the accretion mostly occurs in the area protected by the South breakwater. During the breakwater’s construction, the Cabedelo spit shoreline presented high retreat rates, with a mean value greater than 100 m. In terms of spatial variance (EOFs analysis), when the dataset was divided in two parts, the first Principal Component (PC) represents 60.10 % and 89.86 % of the mean squared value of the data, for Part A and Part B, respectively. As proved, the breakwaters would tend to stabilize the coastline leading to a higher first PC value after breakwaters construction (Part B).     

Haloacetic acids in swimming pool and spa water in the United States and China

The objective of this study is to investigate the occurrence of haloacetic acids （HAAs）, a group of disinfection byproducts, in swimming pool and spa water. The samples were collected from six indoor pools, six outdoor pools and three spas in Pennsylvania, the United States, and from five outdoor pools and nine indoor pools in Beijing, China. Five HAAs （HAA5）, including monochloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, monobromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid were analyzed. Total chlorine, pH and total organic carbon concentration were analyzed as well. Results indicated that the levels of HAA5 in swimming pools and spas in the United States ranged from 70 to 3980μg·L^-1, with an arithmetic average at 1440μg·L^-1 and a median level at 1150μg·L^-1. These levels are much higher than the levels reported in chlorinated drinking water and are likely due to organic matters released from swimmers＇ bodies. The levels of HAA5 in swimming pools in China ranged from 13 to 332μg·L^-1, with an arithmetic average at 117μg·L^-1 and a median level at 114μg·L^-1. The lower HAA levels in swimming pools in China were due to the lower chlorine residuals. Results from this study can help water professionals to better understand the formation and stability of HAAs in chlorinated water and assess risks associated with exposures to HAAs in swimming pools and spas.     

Effect of aeration rate and moisture content on the emissions of selected VOCs during municipal solid waste composting

The influence of the industrial control composting conditions (aeration 0.005–0.300?L_air?kg^?1 and moisture 40–70?%) of municipal solid waste on the composition of the selected compound emitted (limonene, β-pinene, 2-butanone, undecane, phenol, toluene, dimethyl sulfide, dimethyl disulfide) was studied. The highest emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were observed in the early stages of the processes. At the end of the process, low concentrations of the emitted compounds were found. Aeration rate had a strong effect on emissions. High aeration rate (0.300?L_air?kg^?1?min^?1) caused normally high emissions of all selected compounds whereas low aeration rates (0.05?L_air?kg^?1?min^?1) could cause anaerobiosis problems and generation of organic sulphur compounds. We observed that the effect of the moisture upon the emitted concentrations varied depending on the studied compound.     

The correlation of total and extractable heavy metals from soil and domestic sewage sludge and their transfer to maize ( Zea mays L.) plants

A study to understand the mobility and transport of heavy metals (HMs) from soil and soil amended with sewage sludge to maize plants was carried out. The total and ethylenediaminetetraaceticacid (EDTA)-extractable HMs in agricultural soil and untreated domestic sewage sludge samples, and the correlation between the total and extractable metals in soil and sewage sludge were carried out. Pot experiments were performed to study the transfer of HMs to maize grains, grown in soil (control) and in soil amended with sewage sludge (test samples). The total and extractable HMs in soil, sewage sludge, and maize grains were analysed by FAAS/ETAAS (flame atomic absorption spectrometer/electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometer) after digestion in microwave oven. Statistically significant correlations were obtained between the total contents of Cu, Cd, As and their respective extractable fractions in soil, while in domestic wastewater sludge (DWS) the better correlation was observed only for Ni and Cd. The edible part of maize plants (grains) from test samples presented high concentration of Zn, Pb, Ni, Cd, Cu, As, and Cr concentrations (80.7–85.6, 3.8–3.95, 2.35–2.5, 0.75–0.82, 3.21–3.29, 0.23–0.27, and 0.22–0.29?mg?kg^?1, respectively). Good correlations were found between metals in exchangeable fractions of both soil and DWS and total metals in control and test samples of maize grains. The transfer factor of all HMs from DWS to maize grains was also determined.     

Interaction of alcohol and kola nut on brain sodium pump activity in Wistar rats

The effect of interaction of alcohol and kola nut on sodium pump activity was studied in Wistar rats. Thirty Wistar rats were divided into six groups of five rats per group. Control received a placebo (4 mL of distilled water). Groups 2–6 were treated for a period of 21 days with 10% (v/v) alcohol, 50 mg caffeine/kg, 50 mg kola nut/kg, or a combination of 10% (v/v) alcohol + 50 mg kola nut/kg, or 10% (v/v) alcohol + 50 mg caffeine/kg, respectively. One day after the final exposure, brains were harvested and several biochemical parameters examined including activities of total ATPase, ouabain-insensitive ATPase, ouabain sensitive ATPase (Na⁺–K⁺-ATPase) and levels of nonenzymatic breakdown of ATP and inorganic phosphate (P_i) released. Results showed that the essential enzyme of the brain responsible for neuronal function, Na⁺–K⁺-ATPase, was inhibited by alcohol–kola nut co-administration relative to control, resulting in a decreased ATP production, ion transport and action potential, leading to loss of neuronal activities.     

Lead distribution in rats following respiratory exposure to lead-contaminated soils

Two preliminary experiments were performed to explore the use of an intratracheal instillation technique as a cost-effective method of determining the biokinetics of lead (Pb) following respiratory exposure to Pb-contaminated soils. A novel intratracheal instillation procedure was refined and used to deliver a defined dose of Pb-contaminated soil or PbAc to the lower respiratory tract of rats. In the first experiment, rats were sacrificed at numerous time intervals post-dosing, and liver, kidney, blood, and bone tissues were collected for Pb analysis. In the second experiment, rats were dosed with Pb-contaminated soil or PbAc via intratracheal instillation or gastric gavage. All rats were sacrificed 96 h after dose administration and tissues were collected for lead analysis. Data from these experiments indicate Pb is well-absorbed following intratracheal instillation of Pb-contaminated soil, and the intratracheal instillation technique could be used as a cost effective method for exploring the biokinetics of Pb in Pb-contaminated soils following respiratory tract exposure.     

Pharmacokinetics of [14C]-atrazine in rhesus monkeys,single-dose intravenous and oral administration

This is the first study regarding the pharmacokinetics of [¹⁴C]-atrazine conducted with rhesus monkeys. The animals received one dose (0.25 mg) intravenously (IV) or three doses (1, 10, or 100 mg) orally. Plasma, urine, and feces were collected at defined times up to 7 days post-dosing. Sample radioactivity was measured to determine the mass equivalent. IV administered [¹⁴C]-atrazine disappeared rapidly from blood, with an elimination half-life of about 5.5 ± 1.1 h. The pharmacokinetic profiles of [¹⁴C]-atrazine following oral administration at the three dose levels show that kinetic parameters such as AUC and C _max are linearly correlated with the dose. Seven days after dosing, urinary and fecal excretion of [¹⁴C]-atrazine reached 99% of total administered dose in the IV group and 91–95% in the three oral dose groups. In the IV-administered monkeys, approximately 85% of the dose was excreted in urine and 12% in feces. In three oral dose groups, urinary and fecal radioactivity recoveries approximated 57% and 21%, 58% and 25%, and 53% and 35%, respectively. More than 50% of the total urinary excreted radioactivity was found within the first 24 h after dosing. In conclusion, the principal elimination of [¹⁴C]-atrazine, IV and orally administered, is via urine. The oral bioavailability was 60% or higher. There was a significant linear correlation between administered oral dose and plasma concentration. Overall oral dose accountability ranged from 91% to 95%. Data generated may be useful in the risk assessment of human exposure to environmental atrazine contamination.     

Assessment of the state and management of the cephalopod trawl fishery resources in Greek waters

The cephalopod trawl fishery in Greek waters is reviewed in relation to fishing effort for 1964–1981. The mean annual (1964–81) catch of cephalopods amounted to 1348 tons. Total landings of cephalopods are very well described by the exponential⁹ and linear²⁹ surplus yield models, according to which optimum fishing effort, maximum sustained yield and optimum catch per unit of fishing effort range between 120000–150000HP, 1586–1630 tons and 10–13kgr/HP respectively. In addition, the analysis revealed that cephalopod resources were slightly overfished (according to the linear model) during 1975–1981. Hence, authorities must take immediate measures for the protection and rational management of cephalopod resources in Greek waters. Possible alternative measures are discussed in the text.