The return of returnable bottles: A study of consumers' and retailers' attitudes and practices concerning returnable bottles

The authors highlight the importance of the trippage of a returnable bottle to the current beverage container debate. Results of recent surveys of consumers and retailers are presented, which show that the reasons for low trippages in the UK are more complex than the conventional diagnosis that ‘consumers cannot be bothered to return bottles’. In many instances consumers thought that the ‘returnable bottle was ‘non- returnable’ and many consumers found it difficult to return bottles to the shops. Making it easier for consumers to return the bottle would appear to be a more effective method of raising trippage than increasing the deposit levels.     

A HYBRID COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR PREDICTING THE CHEMICAL QUALITY OF IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS1

ABSTRACT. A hybrid computer program was developed to predict the water and salt outflow from a river basin in which irrigation is the major user of water. The model combines a chemical model which predicts the quality of water percolated through a soil profile with a general hydrologic model. The chemical model considers the reactions that occur in the soil, including the exchange of calcium, magnesium, and sodium cations on the soil complex, and the dissolution and precipitation of gypsum and lime. The chemical composition of the outflow is a function of these chemical processes within the soil, plus the blending of undiverted inflows, evaporation, transpiration, and the mixing of sub surface return flows with groundwater. The six common ions of western waters, namely calcium (Ca⁺⁺), magnesium (Mg⁺⁺), sodium (Na⁺), sulfate (SO₄⁼), chloride (Cl^?), and bicarbonate (HCO₃^?) were considered in the study. Total dissolved solids (TDS) outflow was obtained by adding the individual ions. The overall model operates on a monthly time unit. The model was tested on a portion of the Little Bear River basin in northern Utah. The model successfully simulated measured outflows of water and each of the six ions for a 24-month period. The usefulness of the model was demonstrated by a management study of the prototype system. For example, preliminary results indicated that the available water supply could be used to irrigate additional land without unduly increasing the salt outflow from the basin. With minor adjustments the model can be applied to other hydrologic areas.     

EVALUATION OF WATER QUALITY SAMPLING LOCATIONS ON THE YUKON RIVER1

ABSTRACT: This paper presents an approach to the evaluation of water quality sampling locations for their potential use for long term monitoring. This approach was applied to four sites on the Yukon River near the Canada-United States boundary. At three of these sites it was difficult to obtain representative samples due to the presence of extensive lateral heterogeneities. These heterogeneities occur because of a lack of mixing between the Yukon River and the major tributaries upstream from Dawson. Only one of the sampling locations is spatially homogeneous enough to provide representative samples. Concentration variations over the annual cycle are very large, often as much as two orders of magnitude. Estimates are made of the frequency and density with which samples must be collected to be able to detect a 10 percent different between annual mean concentrations. The estimated frequencies are so large that such an undertaking would be impractical. More importantly, the assumptions of this analysis are invalid, and time series analysis of fixed frequency samples is proposed as an alternative that is statistically rigorous and requires fewer samples.     

Mass loading of nickel and uranium on plant surfaces: application of laser ablation-ICP-MS

Transport of contaminated sediments from a former radiological settling pond results in the deposition of U and Ni in the Lower Tims Branch (LTB)(Aiken, SC, USA). Uranium is unavailable for plant uptake, but elevated U and Ni concentrations associated with foliage of understory plants suggested mass loading. Mass loading of contaminated soil on Andropogon elliottii Chapman (Poaceae) was investigated using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The technique allows for rapid quantitative elemental depth profiling. Fresh washed and unwashed leaves (n= 5) from the contaminated area were compared with those from an uncontaminated area, analysing Ni and U at ten randomly chosen points on each leaf. Nickel and U concentrations differed significantly between washed and unwashed leaves from LTB. Particles on unwashed leaves measured up to 300 [micro sign]m in diameter, and were enriched with U. Uranium was detected on the surface of the leaf, whereas Ni was detected within leaf tissues. In unwashed LTB leaves, Ni and U concentrations did not significantly differ in areas with and without visible particles, suggesting that there were much smaller particles, indistinguishable at [times]100 magnification, which contributed to the overall metal burden. Washing removed the majority of the Ni and U on the surface, but residual U and Ni was detected. Irregularities in the leaf surface, such as scars from herbivory contained elevated U concentrations despite a washing step, presumably from trapping soil particles. Laser ablation ICP-MS revealed that mass loading makes a significant contribution to the contaminant burden of understory plants at LTB.     

Economic appraisal and evaluation of UK waste minimisation clubs: proposals to inform the design of sustainable clubs

Waste minimisation clubs have been established for some 12 years in the UK. During that time, they have been significant driving forces in disseminating sustainable waste management practices in industry and commerce. Clubs have also demonstrated that they can achieve significant reductions in levels of waste. However, data on the economic benefits of these clubs remain scanty and disparate. In addition, no standard methodology has developed to assess whether the investment costs of clubs can be justified on grounds of either economic welfare or sustainable development, despite the theoretical advantages from doing so. Against this background, the paper considers the need for economic appraisal and evaluation of waste minimisation clubs and discusses how these methods could be applied to the creation of clubs that will be sustainable over time.     

Solubility of antimony and other elements in samples taken from shooting ranges

The aim of this study was to determine whether or not Sb and other elements (Ni, Cu, Bi, Tl, and Hg) originating from Pb alloy (2-5 wt. % Sb) bullets become more soluble as a result of weathering and what mechanisms possibly control their solubility. Samples were taken from bank material behind the targets at seven Swiss shooting ranges. The samples were dried, sieved, analyzed, and subjected to leaching experiments. Total average concentrations of Sb ranged from 0.5 to 13.8 g kg(-1). In the leaching experiments, Sb was almost exclusively present in solution as the oxidized species Sb(V) in concentrations of up to 5 mg L(-1). The Ca mineral Ca[Sb(OH)6]2 is suggested to control dissolved Sb(V) concentrations in soils at high concentrations. Oxalate extractions suggested that approximately 50% of Sb [predominantly Sb(V)] in the <0.5-mm fraction was adsorbed to Fe (hydr)oxides and possibly other minerals, such as calcite, that are soluble at pH 2. However, it is possible that only a fraction of the oxalate-extractable Sb(V) is reversibly bound to mineral surfaces. It was concluded that the release of Sb is significant and considerably higher than the other elements under investigation and that the mechanisms controlling Sb mobility should be further investigated.     

Validating a New Model for N Sequestration in Forest Soil Organic Matter

A conceptual model for N sequestration into the terrestrial nitrogen(N) sink is presented. The model uses foliar litter-fall data, limit values for litter decomposition, and calculated N concentration at the limit value (N_limit), giving the N concentration in the hypothesized stable remains. The N_limit values were determined extrapolating a linear relationship between accumulated litter mass loss and the increasing litter N concentration to the limit value. Thesequestration rates for N in boreal forest humus were calculated and validated for a Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) monocultural stand and mixed stands with Scots pine, Norway spruce (Picea abies L.), and silver birch (Betula pendula L.). The calculated stable N fraction was compared to actually measured amounts of N in humus layers that started to accumulate 2984, 2081, 1106, and 120 yr BP. Sequestration rates of N were measured to be 0.255, 0.221, 0.147, and 0.168 g m^-2 yr^-1 and modeled to be 0.204, 0.207, 0.190, and 0.190 g m^-2 yr^-1, respectively, with missing fractions being 11.0, 1.5, 30.8, and 13.3%, respectively. The more N-rich the litter, the larger was the N fraction sequestered. This was found for experimental Scots pine needle litter (n = 6) and for 53 decomposition studies, encompassing seven litter species. The amounts of N sequestered annually ranged from ca. 1–2 kg ha^-1 yr^-1 under nutrient-poor boreal conditions to about 30 kgha^-1 yr^-1 in temperate, more nutrient-rich forests.     

MAPPING HYDROLOGIC UNITS FOR THE NATIONAL WATERSHED BOUNDARY DATASET1

ABSTRACT: In 2002, Wyoming became the first state to complete development of a statewide 1:24,000‐scale Watershed Boundary Dataset (WBD) under the new Federal Standards for Delineation of Hydrologic Unit Boundaries. The product was developed through the coordinated efforts of numerous state, federal, and local entities both within Wyoming and in neighboring states. Development of a comprehensive, standardized hydrologic unit boundary dataset in a “headwaters” state such as Wyoming poses a number of unique challenges. This paper details the WBD's development in Wyoming, highlighting technical methodology development and interagency coordination strategies. Evolution of the WBD standard is reviewed, addressing inconsistencies between definitions for hydro‐logic units and “true” watershed delineations. While automated methods are improving, manual and semi‐automated techniques continue to serve as valuable approaches to hydrologic unit boundary delineation given the quality of digital terrain models and the multijurisdictional nature of watershed based management. This case study provides insight on future development and maintenance of the WBD within and across other states and regions of the country and on opportunities for linking the WBD to related water resource geospatial data products like the National Hydrography Dataset.     

The alcohol interlock: an underutilized resource for predicting and controlling drunk drivers

This report summarizes evidence presented during the Third Annual Ignition Interlock Symposium at Vero Beach, Florida, 29 October 2002. The ignition interlock prevents a car from starting when blood alcohol concentration (BAC) is elevated. We review some of our prior work as well as introduce previously unpublished results to demonstrate the manner in which the data recorded by the alcohol ignition interlock device can serve as an advance predictor of future driving under the influence (DUI) of alcohol risks. Data used in this current report represent approximately 2,200 ignition interlock users from Alberta, Canada, and about 8,000 interlock users from Quebec, Canada; the Alberta data set contained 5.5 million breath tests and the Quebec data 18.8 million breath tests. All tests are time and date stamped and this information was used to characterize patterns of BAC and vehicle use, and the relationship between BAC elevations and DUI offenses that accumulated after the interlock was removed from the vehicles. Findings from Cox regression (Marques et al., 2003) show that BAC elevations > .02-.04% are more potent predictors of repeat DUI (p < .0001) than even prior DUI (p < .006), usually found to be the strongest indicator of driver risk. Prior DUI obviously has no use for scaling the risk of first-time offenders. Drivers who are both multiple offenders and who have more than a few elevated interlock BAC tests are much more likely to repeat DUI. The timing and pattern of elevated BAC tests provided during the time drivers were required to use an alcohol ignition interlock device are remarkably similar on both a daily basis and an hourly basis when the interlock programs from the two provinces are compared directly. Both provinces had higher rates of elevated tests on Saturday and Sunday, and the fewest elevated tests on Tuesdays. The absolute rate of elevated tests is similar despite the two provinces adhering to different interlock lockout points (.02% Quebec; .04% Alberta). Charts tracking the Monday-Friday timing of elevated BAC tests by hour are nearly identical for both provinces. The most elevated BAC tests occurred between 7 and 9 A.M. Monday to Friday, even though most vehicle start attempts occurred much later in the day. This higher rate of elevated morning BAC likely represents drinking from the prior evening with alcohol not yet cleared from circulation; those with elevated BAC in the early morning were more likely to have a repeat offense even after accounting for prior DUI and the higher overall rate of elevated BAC tests. This is viewed as evidence of a drinking problem that will lead to impaired driving after the controlling function of the interlock is removed. Policy changes are discussed that might take better advantage of interlock information to improve the public response to drunk driving.     

Sediment retention in rangeland riparian buffers

Controlling nonpoint-source sediment pollution is a common goal of riparian management, but there is little quantitative information about factors affecting performance of rangeland riparian buffers. This study evaluated the influence of vegetation characteristics, buffer width, slope, and stubble height on sediment retention in a Montana foothills meadow. Three vegetation types (sedge wetland, rush transition, bunchgrass upland) were compared using twenty-six 6- x 2-m plots spanning 2 to 20% slopes. Plots were clipped moderately (10-15 cm stubble) or severely (2-5 cm stubble). Sediment (silt + fine sand) was added to simulated overland runoff 6, 2, or 1 m above the bottom of each plot. Runoff was sampled at 15-s to > 5-min intervals until sediment concentrations approached background levels. Sediment retention was affected strongly by buffer width and moderately by vegetation type and slope, but was not affected by stubble height. Mean sediment retention ranged from 63 to > 99% for different combinations of buffer width and vegetation type, with 94 to 99% retention in 6-m-wide buffers regardless of vegetation type or slope. Results suggest that rangeland riparian buffers should be at least 6 m wide, with dense vegetation, to be effective and reliable. Narrower widths, steep slopes, and sparse vegetation increase risk of sediment delivery to streams. Vegetation characteristics such as biomass, cover, or density are more appropriate than stubble height for judging capacity to remove sediment from overland runoff, though stubble height may indirectly indicate livestock impacts that can affect buffer performance.