Contaminant geochemistry—a new perspective

To date, the field of contaminant geochemistry—which deals with the study of chemical interactions in soil and aquifer environments—has focused mainly on pollutant toxicity, retention, persistence, and transport and/or on remediation of contaminated sites. Alteration of subsurface physicochemical properties by anthropogenic chemicals, which reach the land surface as a result of human activity, has been essentially neglected. Contaminant-induced changes in subsurface properties are usually considered as deviations from a normal geological environment, which will disappear under natural attenuation or following remediation procedures. However, contaminants may in many cases cause irreversible changes in both structure and properties of the soil–subsurface geosystem between the land surface and groundwater. The time scales associated with these changes are on a “human time scale”, far shorter than geological scales relevant for geochemical processes. In this review, we draw attention to a new perspective of contaminant geochemistry, namely, irreversible changes in the subsurface as a result of anthropogenic chemical pollution. We begin by briefly reviewing processes governing contaminant–subsurface interactions. We then survey how chemical contamination causes irreversible changes in subsurface structure and properties. The magnitude of the anthropogenic impact on the soil and subsurface is linked directly to the amounts of chemical contaminants applied and/or disposed of on the land surface. This particular aspect is of major importance when examining the effects of humans on global environmental changes. Consideration of these phenomena opens new perspectives for the field of contaminant geochemistry and for research of human impacts on the soil and subsurface regimes.     

Evaluating risks associated with transport of the ghost shrimp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Neotrypaea californiensis</Emphasis> as live bait

The ghost shrimp Neotrypaea californiensis is imported into southern California from Oregon and Washington for use as live bait in recreational marine fisheries. We studied the population genetic structure of N. californiensis across much its range to assess the possibility that the transport of ghost shrimp across phylogeographic boundaries poses a risk of homogenizing existing genetic variation in the species. Analyses of two mitochondrial DNA markers showed little phylogeographic structure across the sampled range, suggesting that this risk is low. Unexpectedly, mitochondrial DNA analyses revealed that a second putative species of ghost shrimp frequently coexisted with N. californiensis in southern California intertidal habitats; almost all previous studies of soft-sediment communities in the region report the presence of N. californiensis only. We also assessed the possibility that the import of ghost shrimp might pose a risk of introduction of a parasitic castrator, the bopyrid isopod Ione cornuta, into southern California waters, where it does not appear to be native. Prevalence of living I. cornuta in samples purchased from bait shops was high (5.8%), suggesting that this is a real risk that merits further study.     

The influence of south Foehn on the ozone distribution in the Alpine Rhine valley—results from the MAP field phase

During the Mesoscale Alpine Programme (MAP) special observation period (SOP) between 7 September and 15 November 1999, ground-based and airborne measurements have been conducted in the Rhine valley south of the Lake of Constance to investigate the unstationary aspects of Foehn and related phenomena, like the impact of Foehn on the ozone concentrations in the valley. Foehn events occurred with above-average frequency and high diversity. Foehn induced ozone peaks in October and November are found to be much lower than the September Foehn case of the period. An inversion layer in the lake area with ozone concentrations below 10 ppb often shields the monitoring stations from the Foehn air aloft. Trajectory calculations for the Foehn period between 19 and 24 October 1999 reveal that the Foehn air originated from below 1 to 1.5 km above the Po Basin and the Mediterranean Sea. Tethered balloon soundings in the source area south of the Alps, ozone measurements at the mountain station Jungfraujoch (3580 m a.s.l.) and airborne measurements across the Alpine crests reveal that the ozone levels found in the Foehn air correspond to the concentrations just above the mixing height in the Po Basin and are transported across the Alpine crest within the lowest flow layer.     

Can leftovers from predators be reliably used to monitor marine turtle hatchling sex-ratios? The implications of prey selection by ghost crabs

In marine turtles, the sex of an individual is determined by temperatures experienced during embryonic development. Gonad histological observation is still the only reliable way to determine hatchling sex, hampering the study of reproduction and of the demographic consequences of context-dependent sex-ratios, a subject of interest in a warming planet. We investigated whether hatchling remains from predation by Ocypode cursor can be used to estimate sex-ratio trends in a green turtle rookery at Poilão, Guinea-Bissau (10°52′N, 15°43′W). Sex could be readily determined in 77 and 79% of the predated hatchlings in 2008 and 2009, respectively. By comparing hatchlings killed by crabs, hatchlings accidentally dying on the reefs, and live hatchlings, we show that ghost crabs select the smaller prey, but do not select according to hatchling sex, which is explained by the lack of hatchling size dimorphism in this population. The proportion of male hatchlings was 0.45 ± 0.06 and 0.15 ± 0.06 for early and late-season clutches, respectively, these differences most likely being explained by rainfall. Using leftovers from predation by crabs may be a good solution to non-invasively monitor broad trends in sex-ratios of sea turtles.     

Faecal elimination of cypermethrin by cows after pour-on administration: Determining concentrations and measuring the impact on dung beetles

Cattle treatment with antiparasitic drugs is associated with an important risk exposure for dung beetles. Previous studies demonstrated the impact of some avermectin and pyrethroid compounds on several species such as Onthophagus gazella and Neomyia cornicina. However, little information is available regarding the elimination of these compounds in faeces 8 days after a pour-on administration in dairy cows. The present study, utilising a dairy cow model with cypermethrin treatment, demonstrated that concentrations in dry faeces can reach levels of 5?mg?kg^?1 between the first and fourth day after treatment and were present up to 3 months after a single dose of administration at a concentration around 10?µg?kg^?1. Faecal samples were purified with three successive columns (silica gel, anion exchange phase, and basic alumina) and analysed by GC-MS. The limit of quantification of this method was 0.5?µg?kg^?1. The high sensitivity of the method permitted one to see that the risk exposure of cypermethrin to dung beetles is longer than what was noted in the literature. According to other studies, repeated treatment with such agents may lead to the local extinction of dung beetles. Even if the impact of pyrethroid largely depends on the conditions of the ecosystem where the treated cattle are living, adverse effects of these agents may still occur.     

Chelant-assisted pulse flushing of a field Pb-contaminated soil

Laboratory experiments on a lead-contaminated soil were carried out to test the effects of chelant addition on metal leachability using column tests. Tests were aimed at studying metal mobilisation upon application of two different chelating agents (ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid [EDTA] and ethylenediaminedisuccinic acid [EDDS]). Column operation was arranged to simulate a flushing treatment in which the chelating agent is applied in a pulse mode to the soil for one bed volume, while deionised water was continuously introduced for the rest of the experiment. Two different concentrations (3 and 5 mmol·kg ^?1 respectively) of the two chelating agents and a control solution (deionised water) were tested in separate experiments; pH, total organic carbon and the total concentrations of Pb, Zn, Fe, Cd, Cu and Ni were monitored during each run. A seven-step sequential extraction procedure was used to evaluate metal partitioning and concentration in the contaminated soil after treatment as a function of depth. The results showed the effect of the nature of flushing solution on the hydraulic behaviour of the columns. Metal concentrations in the leachate increased considerably upon the application of chelants, thus indicating their suitability for metal extraction from contaminated soils. In view of full-scale application of soil flushing, particular concern should also be devoted to ensuring a homogeneous distribution of the solution within the contaminated area and an efficient collection of the exhausted extracting solution, as well as to recovering and recycling the chelating agent used.