Degradation and plant uptake of nonylphenol (NP) and nonylphenol-12-ethoxylate (NP12EO) in four contrasting agricultural soils

Nonylphenol polyethoxylates (NPEOs) are surfactants found ubiquitously in the environment due to widespread industrial and domestic use. Biodegradation of NPEOs produces nonylphenol (NP), an endocrine disruptor. Sewage sludge application introduces NPEOs and NP into soils, potentially leading to accumulation in soils and crops. We examined degradation of NP and nonylphenol-12-ethoxylate (NP12EO) in four soils. NP12EO degraded rapidly (initial half time 0.3-5 days). Concentrations became undetectable within 70-90 days, with a small increase in NP concentrations after 30 days. NP initially degraded quickly (mean half time 11.5 days), but in three soils a recalcitrant fraction of 26-35% remained: the non-degrading fraction may consist of branched isomers, resistant to biodegradation. Uptake of NP by bean plants was also examined. Mean bioconcentration factors for shoots and seeds were 0.71 and 0.58, respectively. Removal of NP from the soil by plant uptake was negligible (0.01-0.02% of initial NP). Root concentrations were substantially higher than shoot and seed concentrations.     

Long term changes in atmospheric N and S throughfall deposition and effects on soil solution chemistry in a Scots pine forest in the Netherlands

In a Scots pine forest the throughfall deposition and the chemical composition of the soil solution was monitored since 1984. (Inter)national legislation measures led to a reduction of the deposition of nitrogen and sulphur. The deposition of sulphur has decreased by approximately 65%. The total mineral-nitrogen deposition has decreased by ca. 25%, which is mainly due to a reduction in ammonium-N deposition (−40%), since nitrate-N deposition has increased (+50%). The nitrogen concentration in the upper mineral soil solution at 10 cm depth has decreased, leading to an improved nutritional balance, which may result in improved tree vitality. In the drainage water at 90 cm depth the fluxes of NO₃⁻ and SO₄²⁻ have decreased, resulting in a reduced leeching of accompanying base cations, thus preserving nutrients in the ecosystem. It may take still several years, however, before this will meet the prerequisite of a sustainable ecosystem.     

Remediation of copper-contaminated topsoils from a wood treatment facility using in situ stabilisation

Five organic matters, three phosphate compounds, zerovalent iron grit (ZVIG, 2% by soil weight), two alkaline compounds, and two commercial formulations were incorporated, singly and some combined with ZVIG, into a highly Cu-contaminated topsoil (Soil P7, 2600 mg Cu kg⁻¹) from a wood treatment facility. Formulations and two composts were also singly incorporated into a slightly Cu-contaminated topsoil (Soil P10, 118 mg Cu kg⁻¹) from the facility surrounding. This aimed to reduce the labile pool of Cu and its accumulation in beans cultivated on potted soils in a climatic chamber. Lowest Cu concentration in soil solution occurred in P7 soils amended with activated carbon (5%) and ZVIG, singly and combined. Basic slag (3.9%) and compost of sewage sludge (5%) combined with ZVIG promoted shoot production and limited foliar Cu accumulation. For amended P10 soils, no changes occurred in soil solution and foliar Cu concentrations, but one compost increased shoot production.     

Anthropogenic lead distribution in soils under arable land and permanent grassland estimated by Pb isotopic compositions

The role of land use on fate of metals in soils is poorly understood. In this work, we studied the incorporation of lead in two neighboring soils with comparable pedogenesis but under long-term different agricultural management. Distributions of anthropogenic Pb were assessed from concentrations and isotopic compositions determined on bulk horizon samples, systematical 5-10 cm increment samples, and on 24-h EDTA extracts. Minor amounts of anthropogenic lead were detected until 1-m depth under permanent grassland, linked to high earthworm activity. In arable land, exogenous Pb predominantly accumulated at depths <60 cm. Although the proximity between the two sites ensured comparable exposition regarding atmospheric Pb deposition, the isotopic compositions clearly showed the influence of an unidentified component for the cultivated soil. This work highlights the need for exhaustive information on historical human activities in such anthropized agrosystems when fate of metal pollution is considered.     

Particle fluxes above forests: observations, methodological considerations and method comparisons

This paper reports a study designed to test, evaluate and compare micro-meteorological methods for determining the particle number flux above forest canopies. Half-hour average particle number fluxes above a representative broad-leaved forest in Denmark derived using eddy covariance range from -7x10(7) m(-2) s(-1) (1st percentile) to 5x10(7) m(-2) s(-1) (99th percentile), and have a median value of -1.6x10(6) m(-2) s(-1). The statistical uncertainties associated with the particle number flux estimates are larger than those for momentum fluxes and imply that in this data set approximately half of the particle number fluxes are not statistically different to zero. Particle number fluxes from relaxed eddy accumulation (REA) and eddy covariance are highly correlated and of almost identical magnitude. Flux estimates from the co-spectral and dissipation methods are also correlated with those from eddy covariance but exhibit higher absolute magnitude of fluxes.     

PAHs in background soils from Western Europe: influence of atmospheric deposition and soil organic matter

The levels and distribution of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were determined in soil samples from background locations in the UK and Norway, to investigate their spatial distribution and the controlling environmental factors. Concentrations ranged between 42 and 11200 microg kg(-1) (geometric mean 640 microg kg(-1)) and 8.6 and 1050 microg kg(-1) (150 microg kg(-1)) dry weight in the UK and Norwegian soil, respectively. Proximity to sources and locations susceptible to high atmospheric depositional inputs resulted in higher concentrations. Statistically significant relationships were observed between PAH and total organic carbon (TOC) in the Norwegian samples. High molecular weight PAHs correlated with black carbon (BC) in UK-woodland soil. These observations support the hypothesis that TOC plays an important role in the retention of PAHs in soil and that PAHs are often combined with BC during combustion emissions. PAHs with 4 and more rings comprised approximately 90% of total PAHs in the UK soil, but only 50% in the Norwegian soil. The mixture of PAHs implied that fractionation occurred during long-range atmospheric transport and deposition. The lighter PAHs with lower K(ow) values more readily reached the most remote sites. The heavier PAHs with higher K(ow) values remained in closer proximity to sources.     

Monitoring contaminants from oil production at sea by measuring gill EROD activity in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua)

An ex vivo gill EROD assay was applied in Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) as a biomarker for waterborne CYP1A-inducing compounds derived from oil production at sea. Exposure to nominal concentrations of 1 ppm or 10 ppm North Sea crude oil in a static water system for 24 h caused a concentration-dependent gill EROD induction. Further, exposure of cod for 14 days to environmentally relevant concentrations of produced water (PW, diluted 1:200 or 1:1000) from a platform in the North Sea using a flow-through system resulted in a concentration-dependent induction of gill EROD. Crude oil (0.2 ppm) from the same oil field also proved to induce EROD. Finally, gill EROD activity in cod caged for 6 weeks at 500-10 000 m from two platforms outside Norway was measured. The activities in these fish were very low and did not differ from those in fish caged at reference sites.     

Genotoxicity detected in wild mice living in a highly polluted wetland area in south western Spain

A field study was carried out in the south of the Iberian Peninsula in an industrial area in the neighbourhood of Huelva city, SW Spain, and in a natural area (Do?ana National Park) for comparison, to estimate the genetic risk induced by environmental pollution in wild mice. Genotoxic effects in a sentinel organism, the Algerian mice (Mus spretus) free living in the industrial area were compared with animals of the same species living in the natural protected area. The single cell gel electrophoresis, or Comet assay, was performed as a genotoxicity test in peripheral blood of mice. Our results clearly show that mice free living in the contaminated area bear a high burden of genetic damage as compared with control individuals. The results suggest that the assessing of genotoxicity levels by the Comet assay in wild mice can be used as a valuable test in pollution monitoring and environmental conservation.     

Ozonation of oil sands process water removes naphthenic acids and toxicity

Naphthenic acids are naturally-occurring, aliphatic or alicyclic carboxylic acids found in petroleum. Water used to extract bitumen from the Athabasca oil sands becomes toxic to various organisms due to the presence of naphthenic acids released from the bitumen. Natural biodegradation was expected to be the most cost-effective method for reducing the toxicity of the oil sands process water (OSPW). However, naphthenic acids are poorly biodegraded in the holding ponds located on properties leased by the oil sands companies. In the present study, chemical oxidation using ozone was investigated as an option for mitigation of this toxicity. Ozonation of sediment-free OSPW was conducted using proprietary technology manufactured by Seair Diffusion Systems Inc. Ozonation for 50min generated a non-toxic effluent (based on the Microtox bioassay) and decreased the naphthenic acids concentration by approximately 70%. After 130min of ozonation, the residual naphthenic acids concentration was 2mgl(-1): <5% of the initial concentration in the filtered OSPW. Total organic carbon did not change with 130min of ozonation, whereas chemical oxygen demand decreased by approximately 50% and 5-d biochemical oxygen demand increased from an initial value of 2mgl(-1) to a final value of 15mgl(-1). GC-MS analysis showed that ozonation resulted in an overall decrease in the proportion of high molecular weight naphthenic acids (n> or = 22).     

Relationships between organic matter, black carbon and persistent organic pollutants in European background soils: Implications for sources and environmental fate

Black carbon (BC) and total organic carbon (TOC) contents of UK and Norwegian background soils were determined and their relationships with persistent organic pollutants (HCB, PAHs, PCBs, co-planar PCBs, PBDEs and PCDD/Fs) investigated by correlation and regression analyses, to assess their roles in influencing compound partitioning/retention in soils. The 52 soils used were high in TOC (range 54-460 mg/g (mean 256)), while BC only constituted 0.24-1.8% (0.88%) of the TOC. TOC was strongly correlated (p < 0.001) with HCB, PCBs, co-PCBs and PBDEs, but less so with PCDD/Fs (p < 0.05) and PAHs. TOC explained variability in soil content, as follows: HCB, 80%; PCBs, 44%; co-PCBs, 40%; PBDEs, 27%. BC also gave statistically significant correlations with PBDEs (p < 0.001), co-PCBs (p < 0.01) and PCBs, HCB, PCDD/F (p < 0.05); TOC and BC were correlated with each other (p < 0.01). Inferences are made about possible combustion-derived sources, atmospheric transport and air-surface exchange processes for these compounds.