The costs and benefits of packaging waste management systems in Europe: the perspective of local authorities

Local authorities are generally in charge of household packaging waste management operations, particularly in countries with Green Dot schemes or similar extended producer responsibility systems. This leads to the need of establishing a system of financial transfers between the packaging industry and the local authorities (regarding the costs involved in selective collection and sorting). In the present study, the costs and benefits of recycling, from the perspective of local authorities, are compared for Portugal, Belgium and Italy (in Lombardia region), adopting the same economic–financial methodology. The results show that the industry is not paying the net cost of packaging waste management. If the savings attained by diverting packaging waste from other treatment operations are not considered, it seems that the industry should increase the financial support to local authorities. However, if the avoided costs with other treatments are considered as a benefit for local authorities, the costs are generally outweighed by the benefits, and the financial support could, therefore, be reduced.     

Copper, nickel and lead in lichen and tree bark transplants over different periods of time

This work aimed at comparing the dynamics of atmospheric metal accumulation by the lichen Flavoparmelia caperata and bark of Platanus hybrida over different periods of time. Transplants were exposed in three Portuguese coastal cities. Samples were retrieved (1) every 2 months (discontinuous exposure), or (2) after 2-, 4-, 6-, 8- and 10-month periods (continuous exposure), and analysed for Cu, Ni and Pb. Airborne accumulation of metals was essentially independent of climatic factors. For both biomonitors [Pb]>[Ni]>[Cu] but Pb was the only element for which a consistent pattern of accumulation was observed, with the bark outperforming the lichen. The longest exposure periods hardly ever corresponded to the highest accumulation. This might have been partly because the biomonitors bound and released metals throughout the exposure, each with its own dynamics of accumulation, but both according to the environmental metal availability.     

Bark regeneration and tannin content in Myracrodruon urundeuva Allem?o after simulation of extractive damages��implications to management

Due to the current exploitation and consequent extinction of native medicinal plants around the world, new strategies have been proposed to address the sustainable use of this resource. Accordingly, the goal of this study is to assess the speed of bark regeneration of Myracrodruon urundeuva Allem?o and to compare the tannin content before and after tissue regeneration. Twenty individuals from an area of Caatinga in Caruaru, Pernambuco State (NE Brazil), were selected. To evaluate the speed of bark regeneration, four treatments were established, according to the area of bark removed (10 × 2, 6 × 5, 8 × 5 and 10 × 5 cm), with five replicates (five individuals of M. urundeuva Allem?o) and three treatments of tannin content (bark removed before damage, as regenerated tissue, and non-impacted bark or control). At the end of 23 months of monitoring the regeneration, we found that only seven of the 20 individuals analyzed did not fully heal. No significant correlation between the monthly percent regeneration and average monthly precipitation was found. The tannin content varied according to the quantified tissue (after damage, regenerated and control) as well as between damage classes (20 cm(2)-41.64 to 63.53 mg; 30 cm(2)-49.25 to 67.54 mg; 40 cm(2)-31.69 to 67.44 mg; 50 cm(2)-34.08 to 48.53 mg). Despite the variations found, there was no significant difference between the measurement periods (p > 0.05) or damage classes (p > 0.05). The results showed that the regeneration rate was higher in individuals belonging to the 10 × 2 and 10 × 5 cm groups and that there is no correlation between precipitation and regeneration speed. Tannin levels did not vary significantly in the tissues before damage and after regeneration.     

Genetic evidence fails to discriminate between <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macroramphosus gracilis</Emphasis> Lowe 1839 and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Macroramphosus</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">scolopax</Emphasis> Linnaeus 1758 in Portuguese waters

Fish belonging to the genus Macroramphosus are distributed throughout the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific oceans. Some authors consider this genus monotypic, Macroramphosus scolopax being the only valid species. Other authors consider (based on several morphological and ecological characters) that another species (Macroramphosus gracilis) exists and occurs frequently in sympatry with the first one. Intermediate forms are also reported in literature. In this paper, using the mitochondrial control region and the nuclear first S7 intron markers, we failed to find genetic differences between individuals considered to belong to both species as well as the intermediate forms. Our results suggest that in the northeastern Atlantic, Macroramphosus is represented by a single species, M. scolopax, with different morphotypes interbreeding in the sampling areas.     

Characterization of soil fauna under the influence of mercury atmospheric deposition in Atlantic Forest,Rio de Janeiro,Brazil

The increasing levels of mercury (Hg) found in the atmosphere arising from anthropogenic sources, have been the object of great concern in the past two decades in industrialized countries. Brazil is the seventh country with the highest rate of mercury in the atmosphere. The major input of Hg to ecosystems is through atmospheric deposition (wet and dry), being transported in the atmosphere over large distances. The forest biomes are of strong importance in the atmosphere/soil cycling of elemental Hg through foliar uptake and subsequent transference to the soil through litter, playing an important role as sink of this element. Soil microarthropods are keys to understanding the soil ecosystem, and for such purpose were characterized by the soil fauna of two Units of Forest Conservation of the state of the Rio de Janeiro, inwhich one of the areas suffer quite interference from petrochemicals and industrial anthropogenic activities and other area almost exempts of these perturbations. The results showed that soil and litter of the Atlantic Forest in Brazil tend to stock high mercury concentrations, which could affect the abundance and richness of soil fauna, endangering its biodiversity and thereby the functioning of ecosystems.     

Trends in landings of fish species potentially affected by climate change in Portuguese fisheries

Fisheries are an important source of food, with a high economic value and social significance. The present worrying situation of the world fisheries is the result of the interaction between different factors (e.g. climatic variations, natural oscillations, technological innovation), but the greatest challenges are overfishing and climate change. The species richness of the Portuguese coast is generally higher than that found in northern Europe and similar to that of the Mediterranean, since many species have their southern or northern distribution limits along the Portuguese coast. The zoogeographic importance of this latitudinal area has long been recognized, representing the transition between north-eastern Atlantic warm-temperate and cold-temperate regions, which makes the Portuguese coast an area of great sensitivity to the detection of climate change. Official landing data for commercial species that have the Portuguese coast as their distribution limit were analysed together with sea surface temperature for the period of 1927–2011. In general, landings of species with affinity for temperate waters presented a decreasing trend, whereas species with affinity for subtropical/tropical waters showed an increasing trend. These variations were associated with variation in temperature: lower landings of temperate species occurred mainly in warm years, whereas landings of subtropical/tropical species presented an opposite trend, with higher landings in warm years. Preparing for the impacts of climate change is crucial for the sustainability of fisheries. Management should take into consideration information about environmental factors that affect species distribution and abundance.     

Biodegradable chelating agents for industrial,domestic, and agricultural applications—a review

Aminopolycarboxylates, like ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA), are chelating agents widely used in several industrial, agricultural, and domestic applications. However, the fact that they are not biodegradable leads to the presence of considerable amounts in aquatic systems, with serious environmental consequences. The replacement of these compounds by biodegradable alternatives has been the object of study in the last three decades. This paper reviews the most relevant studies towards the use of environmentally friendly chelating agents in a large number of applications: oxidative bleaching, detergents and cleaning compositions, scale prevention and reduction, remediation of soils, agriculture, electroplating, waste treatment, and biocides. Nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA), ethylenediaminedisuccinic acid (EDDS), and iminodisuccinic acid (IDS) are the most commonly suggested to replace the nonbiodegradable chelating agents. Depending on the application, the requirements for metal complexation might differ. Metal chelation ability of the most promising compounds [NTA, EDDS, IDS, methylglycinediacetic acid (MGDA), l-glutamic acid N,N-diacetic acid (GLDA), ethylenediamine-N,N′-diglutaric acid (EDDG), ethylenediamine-N,N′-dimalonic acid (EDDM), 3-hydroxy-2,2-iminodisuccinic acid (HIDS), 2-hydroxyethyliminodiacetic acid (HEIDA), pyridine-2,6-dicarboxylic acid (PDA)] with Fe, Mn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Zn, Ca, and Mg was simulated by computer calculations. The advantages or disadvantages of each compound for the most important applications were discussed.     

Compressibility and shell failure in the European Atlantic <Emphasis Type="Italic">Patella</Emphasis> limpets

The specimens of Patella intermedia, Patella rustica, Patella ulyssiponensis and Patella vulgata were analysed for morphological and morphometric characters, and for the resistance to compression and crushing to a force applied at the apex. Shell shape in these species ranged from the high symmetrical cone, with a rounded base of P. rustica, to the flat, asymmetrical, narrow-pear-shaped base of P. ulyssiponensis. P. intermedia and P. vulgata showed intermediate morphologies. Shell thickness increased linearly with age, but differed in the four limpets. P. rustica had the thickest shells, and P. ulyssiponensis and P. vulgata had the thinnest shells. P. intermedia displayed intermediate shell thickness. Considering deformability and toughness, P. intermedia shells usually needed the highest force to compress in height, the highest pressure to collapse, and were appreciably deformed at collapse. On the opposite side, P. ulyssiponensis shells usually needed the lowest force to compress in height, the lowest pressure to collapse, and were much less deformed at collapse. P. intermedia shells were therefore the most deformable and tough, and P. ulyssiponensis, the most stiff and fragile. P. rustica and P. vulgata shells displayed intermediate behaviour. However, numerical simulations based on the finite element method using the experimentally determined shells’ geometry and thickness, but considering similar shells’ material and structure in the four species, predicted that shell toughness should be decreased in the order P. rustica >> P. intermedia > P. vulgata >> P. ulyssiponensis. P. rustica shells’ geometry (a high and centred cone) and thickness (very thick) were therefore, theoretically, the most fitted for shells to resist crushing by compression. Yet, in the experimental tests, they were not the most resistant shells. It was concluded that resistance to crushing was not a direct function of shell morphology and morphometry, but appeared to be mainly determined by shell deformability. This is most probably related to differences in the internal composition and architecture of the shell in the four species. By comparison with data reported in the literature on the pressures normally exerted by ocean waves, it was concluded that these limpets have resistances to crushing in far excess to pressures normally endured in nature, being therefore unlikely that these species are crushed by the action of even very strong waves on shores. Hard objects, like logs and boulders, can be hurled onto the shore by waves, and constitute a much greater threat to limpets than the waves themselves. The high toughness of the limpet shell can be related to resistance to the impact of incidental hard objects. There was no direct relationship between the habit preferences of these limpets and the resistance to crushing. Other factors are involved in the distribution of these species in the shores.     

Characterization of soil fauna under the influence of mercury atmospheric deposition in Atlantic Forest, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

The increasing levels of mercury (Hg) found in the atmosphere arising from anthropogenic sources, have been the object of great concern in the past two decades in industrialized countries. Brazil is the seventh country with the highest rate of mercury in the atmosphere. The major input of Hg to ecosystems is through atmospheric deposition (wet and dry), being transported in the atmosphere over large distances. The forest biomes are of strong importance in the atmosphere/soil cycling of elemental Hg through foliar uptake and subsequent transference to the soil through litter, playing an important role as sink of this element. Soil microarthropods are keys to understanding the soil ecosystem, and for such purpose were characterized by the soil fauna of two Units of Forest Conservation of the state of the Rio de Janeiro, inwhich one of the areas suffer quite interference from petrochemicals and industrial anthropogenic activities and other area almost exempts of these perturbations. The results showed that soil and litter of the Atlantic Forest in Brazil tend to stock high mercury concentrations, which could affect the abundance and richness of soil fauna, endangering its biodiversity and thereby the functioning of ecosystems.