Environmental hazard profile of organic chemicals: An experimental method for the assessment of the behaviour of organic chemicals in the ecosphere by means of simple laboratory tests with 14C labelled chemicals

The concept of “Environmental Hazard Profile” developed at this institute has been tested with 100 ¹⁴C-labelled organic compounds. Concentration factors in activated sludge, in algae and fish were determined. The microbial degradation of the chemicals to CO₂ in activated sludge and the decomposition to CO₂ under artificial light were determined. Ranking of compounds is given in the order of falling concentration factors and accumulation in rats respectively, and decreasing rates of decomposition. Relationship between chemical structure and accumulative and degradative behaviours is demonstrated using some selected groups of chemicals, such as benzenes, phenols, biphenyls and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Correlations between the octanol/water partition coefficient, concentration factors and rates of decomposition could be established. Evaluation of test compounds was possible using hazard profiles obtained by the sum of single test results.     

Removal of PCB-DNAPL from a rough-walled fracture using alcohol/polymer flooding

Phase behaviour experiments employing PCB (Aroclor 1242)/alcohol/water systems were conducted with ethanol (EtOH) and n-propanol (nPA). Both exhibited an affinity for the aqueous phase within the entire two-phase region. As much as 88% by volume (88% vol.) EtOH and 80% vol. nPA were necessary to achieve full miscibility of the PCB in the aqueous phase. DNAPL-water interfacial tension (IFT) was reduced from 38.9 dyn/cm to 4.7 dyn/cm and 2.4 dyn/cm with 80% vol. EtOH and 76% vol. nPA. The addition of alcohol brought about 41% and 54% reductions in DNAPL viscosity at maximal concentrations of EtOH and nPA. Density of the PCB-DNAPL was relatively unaffected by the presence of alcohol. A series of seven experiments were conducted where successive slugs of nPA and xanthan gum polymer solutions were injected into a fractured shale sample. A 30% vol. nPA solution injected under a hydraulic gradient of 0.36 allowed enhanced PCB removal primarily through reduction of IFT and resulted in 72% DNAPL recovery. Several pore volumes of alcohol solution were necessary to displace all the potentially mobile non-wetting phase since the high-viscosity DNAPL was mobilized at a lower flow rate than the overall fluid velocity, illustrating non-piston displacement. The injection of a 95% vol. nPA alcohol solution, theoretically at a sufficient concentration to produce fully miscible displacement of the residual DNAPL at equilibrium, resulted in non-equilibrium partitioning of the PCB into the flushing solution, likely due to the high fluid velocities in the fracture. The injection of 200 pore volumes of 95% vol. nPA solution resulted in 94% DNAPL recovery. Alcohol floods operated below the miscibility envelope appear to be a valuable source zone remedial alternative where the objective is to reduce DNAPL mobility to zero, but it should be noted that DNAPL mobility is increased during the application of the technology and steps may need to be taken to prevent unwanted vertical mobilization.     

Nationwide monitoring of polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides in sediments from coastal environment of Korea

To assess the organochlorine contamination in the Korean marine environment, a nationwide monitoring study was conducted. A total of 138 surface sediments, covering the whole Korean coast, were collected and analyzed. Organochlorine compounds (OCs) were widely distributed in the Korean coastal environment, with PCB and DDT contamination being particularly prevalent. The overall concentrations of PCBs, DDTs, HCHs, CHLs, and HCB in surface sediments were in the range of 0.088-199ngg(-1) (median value: 1.56ngg(-1)), 0.006-135ngg(-1) (0.68ngg(-1)), not detected (ND)-5.46ngg(-1) (0.32ngg(-1)), ND-3.26ngg(-1) (0.14ngg(-1)), and ND-2.59ngg(-1) (0.05ngg(-1)), respectively. The southeastern coast was found to be highly contaminated. Overall contamination status of Korean coastal sediments with regard to OCs is lower than that of USA. With the exception of highly industrialized sites, Korean coastal areas in general showed similar OC concentrations to those of other Asian countries. There was a significant correlation between distributions of most organochlorine contaminants with each other. OC contamination is closely related to shipping and industrial activities. Of the 7 sites categorized as highly polluted, 4 are in a harbor zone. Adverse effects to benthic communities are expected at the levels of OC contamination observed from harbor and industrial areas.     

Organochlorine contaminants in complete clutches of Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) eggs from Belize

Seven complete clutches of Morelet's crocodile (Crocodylus moreletii) eggs were collected in northern Belize and examined for organochlorine (OC) pesticide residues. The primary OC detected, p,p-DDE, was found in every egg analyzed (n=175). Other OCs detected included p,p-DDT, p,p-DDD, methoxychlor, aldrin, and endosulfan I. Concentrations of individual OCs ranged from 4 ppb (ng chemical/g egg wet weight) to greater than 500 ppb. A statistical evaluation of p,p-DDE levels in three complete clutches was used to derive the minimum number of eggs needed from a clutch to precisely determine the mean p,p-DDE concentration representative of that clutch. Sample sizes of 8 (80% confidence level) and 11 (90% confidence level) were determined to yield an accurate estimate of contaminant levels in a full clutch of eggs. The statistically recommended sample size of 11 eggs (at 90% confidence level) was successfully tested on the four additional clutches.     

Remediation of contaminated agricultural soils near a former Pb/Zn smelter in Austria: batch, pot and field experiments

Metal contaminated crops from contaminated soils are possible hazards for the food chain. The aim of this study was to find practical and cost-effective measures to reduce metal uptake in crops grown on metal contaminated soils near a former metal smelter in Austria. Metal-inefficient cultivars of crop plants commonly grown in the area were investigated in combination with in-situ soil amendments. A laboratory batch experiment using 15 potential amendments was used to select 5 amendments to treat contaminated soil in a pot study using two Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) cultivars that differed in their ability to accumulate cadmium. Results from this experiment identified 3 of these amendments for use in a field trial. In the pot experiment a reduction in ammonium nitrate extractable Cd (<41%) and Pb (<49%) compared to the controls was measured, with a concurrent reduction of uptake into barley grain (Cd<62%, Pb<68%). In the field extractable fractions of Cd, Pb, and Zn were reduced by up to 96%, 99%, and 99%, respectively in amended soils.     

Influences of macroalga-derived dissolved organic carbon on the aquatic toxicity of copper and cadmium

In this study, the effect of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) derived from macroalga (Sargassum) on the acute toxicity of copper (Cu) and cadmium (Cd) to a freshwater cladoceran (Daphnia magna) was investigated. Potassium-loaded macroalga was incubated with ultrapure water to extract macroalgal DOC, which was then spiked with the constituents of the Elendt M7 hard water media. The 48 h median lethal concentration of Cu increased linearly with DOC levels but that of Cd was relatively independent of DOC levels (0-44 mg l(-1)). The independence of Cd toxicity on DOC level might be due to the competitive effect of high calcium concentrations in the media with Cd for the binding sites of DOC. The decreased Cu toxicity was a result of reduced Cu uptake as evidenced in a separate accumulation test. Also, the capability of the macroalgal DOC on reducing Cu toxicity was found to be comparable to DOC tested in other studies. Therefore, the present study suggested that the biosorption treatment process using macroalgae should consider the effect of DOC release from the biomass as a step of modifying the metal toxicity as well as influencing metal biosorption capacity.     

Effects of sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide on mercury oxidation and reduction under homogeneous conditions

This paper is particularly related to elemental mercury (Hg0) oxidation and divalent mercury (Hg2+) reduction under simulated flue gas conditions in the presence of nitric oxide (NO) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). As a powerful oxidant and chlorinating reagent, Cl2 has the potential for Hg oxidation. However, the detailed mechanism for the interactions, especially among chlorine (Cl)-containing species, SO2, NO, as well as H2O, remains ambiguous. Research described in this paper therefore focused on the impacts of SO2 and NO on Hg0 oxidation and Hg2+ reduction with the intent of unraveling unrecognized interactions among Cl species, SO2, and NO most importantly in the presence of H2O. The experimental results demonstrated that SO2 and NO had pronounced inhibitory effects on Hg0 oxidation at high temperatures when H2O was also present in the gas blend. Such a demonstration was further confirmed by the reduction of Hg2+ back into its elemental form. Data revealed that SO2 and NO were capable of promoting homogeneous reduction of Hg2+ to Hg0 with H2O being present. However, the above inhibition or promotion disappeared under homogeneous conditions when H2O was removed from the gas blend.     

Growth kinetics and competition between Methanosarcina and Methanosaeta in mesophilic anaerobic digestion.

Methanosarcina species with a high maximum specific growth rate (mumax) and high half-saturation coefficient (KS) and Methanosaeta species with a low mumax and low KS are the only known aceticlastic methanogens. Because of Methanosaeta's low KS, the low acetate concentrations in conventional, mesophilic anaerobic digestion yield Methanosaeta dominance. However, Methanosarcina absorbs increases in acetate more efficiently and thus promotes more stable digestion. This paper tests the hypothesis that decreasing digester feeding frequencies can increase Methanosarcina predominance. Two acetate-fed reactors were established at a 17-day solids retention time. One reactor was fed hourly, and one was fed once daily. Microscopic and molecular methods were used to verify that the hourly fed reactor enriched for Methanosaeta, while the daily fed reactor enriched for Methanosarcina. Growth and substrate-use kinetics were measured for each reactor. A digester overload condition was simulated, and the Methanosarcina-enriched reactor was found to perform better than the Methanosaeta-enriched reactor. These findings indicate that Methanosarcina dominance can be achieved with infrequent feedings, leading to more stable digestion.     

Assessment of soil lead exposure in children in Shenyang, China

Soil lead pollution is serious in Shenyang, China. The paper brings together the soil work, the bioaccessibility, and the blood lead data to assess the soil lead exposure in children in Shenyang, China. Approximately 15.25% of the samples were above China Environment Protection Agency guideline concentration for soil Pb to protect human from health risk (350 mgkg(-1)). Pb concentrations varied among use scenarios. The main lead contamination sources are industry emission and automobile exhaust. Bioaccessibility also varied among use scenarios. Children, who ingested soil from industrial area, public parks, kindergarten playground, and commercial area, are more susceptible to soil lead toxicity. The industrial area soil samples presented higher bioaccessibility compared to the other use scenario soil samples contaminated by automobile exhaust. The result also suggested a most significant linear relationship between the level of Pb contamination and the amount of Pb mobilized from soil into ingestion juice. Soil pH seemed to have insignificant influence on bioaccessibility in the present study. Bioaccessibility was mainly controlled by other factors that are not investigated in this study. A linear relationship between children blood lead and soil intestinal bioaccessibility was present in the study. Children who are 4-5 years old are more likely to demonstrate the significant relationship between soil lead bioaccessibility and blood lead as their behaviors place them at greatest risk of soil lead toxicity, and their blood lead levels are more likely to represent recent exposure.     

Road grade estimation for on-road vehicle emissions modeling using light detection and ranging data

Vehicle-specific power (VSP) is useful for explaining a substantial portion of variability in real-world vehicle emissions, such as those measured with portable emissions monitoring systems (PEMS). VSP is a function of vehicle speed, acceleration, and road grade. Road grade is shown to significantly affect estimates of both VSP and of real-world emissions via sensitivity analysis and analysis of empirical data. However, road grade is difficult to measure reliably using PEMS. Therefore, alternative methods for estimating road grade were identified and compared. A preferred method for estimating road grade was explored in more detail based on light detection and ranging (LIDAR) data. The method includes buffering LIDAR data onto roadway maps using a geographic information system tool, defining segments of roadway based on criteria pertaining to vertical curvature, quantification of roadway elevations within the buffered segments, and estimation of road grade and banking by fitting a plane to each segment. Factors influencing errors in road grade estimates are discussed. The method was evaluated by application to selected interstate highways and comparison to design drawing data. The development and application of LIDAR-based road grade data are demonstrated via a case study using PEMS data collected in the Research Triangle Park, NC, area. LIDAR data are shown to be reliable and accurate for road grade estimation for vehicle emissions modeling.