Pharmaceuticals in the Environment in Italy: Causes, Occurrence, Effects and Control

- DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1065/espr2006.01.004 Background, Aim and Scope Environmental contamination by pharmaceuticals is an emerging issue. Until recently, information on medicinal substances released into the environment was scant, but several studies have now been published. Data are, however, usually scattered and a systematic approach to this subject is generally lacking. Moreover, because of differences in the prevalence of diseases, treatment habits and options, or simply for market reasons, the pollution profile can differ significantly in different countries. The aim of this work is to review the papers dealing with environmental contamination by pharmaceuticals in Italy, with the aim of providing a comprehensive view on a national scale. Methods Papers related to environmental contamination by pharmaceuticals in Italy were reviewed, in order to offer a comprehensive view of this subject. Topics included analysis, occurrence, monitoring, modelling, treatment, control of the emissions, and ecotoxicological effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment. Results and Conclusion The literature suggests that pharmaceuticals are widespread contaminants, entering the environment from a myriad of scattered points. Patients, in case of drugs for human use, or animals for veterinary drugs, are the main sources of contamination. Pharmaceuticals can be ranked according to environmental loads, predicted by multiplying sales figures by the rate of metabolism in man or animals. Priority pharmaceuticals, i.e. the molecules of concern for the environment, can be measured in waste and surface water by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry, and the loads detected are generally comparable to the predicted ones. Pharmaceuticals are designed to stimulate a response in humans and animals at low doses, with a very specific target, so the implications for human health and the environment need to be assessed. In vitro and in vivo studies suggest that pharmaceutical principles, taken singularly or in combinations, and concentrations close to those detected in the environment, may have ecotoxicological effects. The sewage system is an important point in the control of contamination, but sewage treatment plants are not able efficiently to abate a substantial part of water-borne pharmaceuticals. Several variables play a role, however, in the processes of waste water treatment, and could be specifically adjusted to improve the efficiency of drug abatement, mitigating the potential environmental hazards. Recommendation and Perspective Pharmaceuticals in the environment are becoming a subject of global concern, with potential environmental consequences. Further knowledge of the causes, occurrence and effects of drugs as environmental pollutants is necessary for a better understanding of this ecological issue, as well as to improve abatement strategies, and to mitigate subtle environmental consequences.     

Spatially-balanced sampling versus unbalanced stratified sampling for assessing forest change: evidences in favour of spatial balance

Large-scale remote sensing-based inventories of forest cover are usually carried out by combining unsupervised classifications of satellite pixels into forest/non forest classes (map data) with subsequent time-consuming visual on-screen imagery classification of a probabilistic sample of pixels taken as the ground truth (reference data). In this paper the estimation of forest change from a sample of reference data is approached by: (i) exploiting map data to construct strata in which changes are occurred, and then adopting the stratified sampling joined with the HT estimator with most sampling effort devoted to strata where changes are occurred irrespective of their size, as suggested in most remote sensing literature regarding land change assessments; (ii) adopting a spatial scheme ensuring spatially balanced samples, as suggested in most recent statistical literature regarding spatial surveys, and exploiting the map data in the difference estimator. The results of a comparison performed on an artificial population of reference data generated from a real population of map data recorded in Sardinia (Italy) discourage the use of unbalanced stratified samples that achieve the worst precision. The best results are obtained by means of spatially balanced samples or stratification with nearly proportional allocation to strata.     

Fungal spores and pollen in particulate matter collected during agricultural activities in the Po Valley (Italy)

Airborne particulate matter (PM) containing fungal spores and pollen grains was sampled within a monitoring campaign of wheat threshing, plowing and sowing agricultural operations. Fungal spores and pollen grains were detected and identified on morphological basis. No studies were previously available about fungal spore and pollen content in agricultural PM in the Po Valley. Sampling was conducted in a Po Valley farmland in Mezzano (Ferrara, Italy). The organic particles collected were examined by scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer. Fungal spores and pollen grains were identified when possible at the level of species. The most frequent components of the organic particles sampled were spores of Aspergillus sp., which could represent a risk of developing allergies and aspergillosis for crop farmers.     

Immediate biomarker responses to benzo[a]pyrene in polluted and unpolluted populations of the blue mussel (Mytilus edulis L.) at high-latitudes

Immediate biomarker responses of two high-latitude populations of the blue mussel Mytilus edulis to benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) were evaluated. Mussels collected from a clean and a polluted site in southwest Iceland were exposed to the nominal dose of 100 microg B[a]P L(-l) for 3 h, after 4 days of acclimatization in clean seawater. To test the sensitivity to the toxicant and immediate biological responses, the following biomarkers were used: DNA single strand breaks, heart rate and feeding rate. All the biomarkers revealed differences between the study sites. Irrespective of the origin of the organisms, the short time exposure to the high B[a]P concentration did not induce DNA single strand breaks or significantly affect the feeding rate. However, the heart rate results showed significantly different responses. The mussels from the polluted site (Reykjavík harbour) increased their heart rate when exposed to B[a]P, while no difference was observed between the heart rate values of the individuals from the clean site (Hvassahraun). The mussels seem to sense the pollutant they have been previously exposed to, and their acute response indicates physiological adaptation to the polluted environment. The results indicate limited sensitivity and temporal predictivity, i.e. transient measurable changes of these biomarkers, as well as showing that the background of the organisms should be considered when evaluating short-term biomarker responses to contaminants.     

The influence of seawater temperature on zooid size and growth rate in Pentapora fascialis (Bryozoa: Cheilostomata)

Zooid size variation and growth banding in the bryozoan Pentapora fascialis, collected from the South of Great Britain to the South of Italy, were investigated in order to test their relationship with the variation of seawater temperature. Zooid length appeared to be more sensitive than zooid area and width to temperature variation. The longest zooids were budded in localities that typically experience low seasonal variation in temperature (3.2–7.5°C) and low mean annual temperature (about 11°C). Zooid length demonstrated the strongest relationship with the range of seasonal variation in temperature rather than the mean annual temperature. Growth bands produced during colder months were less high than those produced during warmer months. Measurements of these alternating bands were used to calculate growth rate of the laminae, ranging from 20.7 at Plymouth to 29.3 mm year⁻¹ at Tino Island. Significant differences in zooid length were found between the two bands, with longer zooids within the band developed in colder months and shorter zooids in bands produced in the warmer period. We conclude that zooid size can be used as an environmental proxy of the seasonal temperature regimes experienced by the species.     

Psychological reactions to fetoscopy: A controlled study

Twenty woman at risk of carrying a fetus with homozygous beta-thalassemia who underwent fetoscopy and a matched control group of pregnant women were administered the Symptom Questionnaire to evaluate changes in distress. Women who were offered fetoscopy had significantly more anxiety, depression, somatic symptoms and hostility than the control group. Psychological distress significantly decreased after the results of fetoscopy were communicated to the patient, and the decrease was similar in normal control women. Five other patients had a diagnosis of homozygous beta-thalassaemia and their pregnancies were terminated. Their psychological distress increased when they learned the outcome of fetoscopy, but decreased again after termination. Psychological reactions to fetoscopy and amniocentesis appear to be similar, yet women who undergo fetoscopy suffer from more psychological distress.     

Essential and toxic elements in meat of wild and bred animals

Essential and toxic elements were determined by Energy Dispersive Polarized X-Rays Fluorescence Spectrometry (EDPXRF) in the meat of 145 wild and bred animals to provide the baseline data regarding meat of wild and bred animals consumed in central Italy. As far as K, Fe, Ni, Zn, and Cu are concerned, no significant differences resulted between young and adults and between males and females for farmed and wild animals. No marked differences were found between hunted and non-hunted animals groups. In all samples analyzed, Mn, Cr, and Mo were below the detection limit. As far as the non-essential or toxic elements are concerned, As, Cd, V, and Hg concentrations in muscle from wild and bred animals were low and always below the detection limits. Among the wild animals killed with lead (Pb) bullets, elevated Pb concentrations in tissues were detected. This finding may result in elevated Pb levels in meat ingested by humans.     

Effects of nano carbon black and single-layer graphene oxide on settlement,survival and swimming behaviour of Amphibalanus amphitrite larvae

The effects of two carbon-based nanomaterials, nano-sized carbon black (nCB), and single-layer graphene oxide (GO) on settlement of Amphibalanus amphitrite (Cirripedia, Crustacea) cypris larvae (cyprids) were assessed after 24, 48, and 72 h of exposure. Additionally, the effects of these nanomaterials on the mortality and swimming behaviour of the nauplius larvae (nauplii) of the same organism were determined after 24 and 48 h. The data indicate that nCB is more effective as a potential antisettlement agent than single-layer GO; moreover, nCB did not show any adverse effects on the larvae. The swimming behaviour of II stage nauplii of A. amphitrite exposed to a suspension of nCB was inhibited only at very high nCB concentrations (≥0.5 mg/mL). Single-layer GO, on the contrary, showed lower antisettlement effects and was more active in altering the survival and inhibiting the swimming behaviour of the nauplii. An indication of the toxic or non-toxic mechanisms of the antisettlement properties of both of these nanomaterials is provided by the reversibility of the antisettlement activity. In conclusion, we propose nCB as an innovative antifouling nanomaterial that shows low toxicity towards the model organism (crustaceans) used in this study.     

Isolation and identification of fungi tolerant to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and coal tar from different habitats in Lithuania

A group of 36 fungal strains, belonging to the Lithuanian mycobiota, was collected and isolated from different locations, habitats, and matrices, including creosote-treated wood in storage yards for crosstie wastes. The eight most perspective strains selected according to preliminary assessment of tolerance to coal tar were subsequently identified combining taxonomical evaluation and molecular techniques. The tolerance of the eight identified fungal species (five basidiomycetes and three ascomycetes) to the presence of various concentrations of coal tar, and for the four most perspective fungal strains (Pleurotus sp., Schizophyllum sp., Irpex lacteus, Bjerkandera adusta) to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons was evaluated. The ligninolytic enzymatic activity assay of the isolated strains resulted in a good correspondence between the tolerance to pollutants and the capability to produce ligninolytic enzymes indicating that this group of white-rot fungi is perspective for further investigation and eventual usage for mycoremediation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons polluted substrates.     

Persistent organic pollutant in a fish community of a sub-alpine lake

This study investigated the presence of organochlorine pollutants in abiotic and biotic samples from Lake Como (Italy). DDTs and PCBs were found to be the major contaminants, ranging from 0.04 to 4.25 and from 0.25 to 40.8 μg/g lipid respectively. Evidence of biomagnification according to the trophic role of the investigated organisms was highlighted by means of Stable Isotope Analysis. A Trophic Magnification Factor (TMF) was calculated for the chemicals of interest and the applicability of the method for global use was confirmed. Statistically significant correlation has been found between the calculated trophic level and the concentrations of more lipophilic compounds, while for the less lipophilic (e.g., HCH, 3CBs) the relationship is no statistically significant and the TMF is close to 1.The role of the foraging area in affecting PCB and DDT concentrations within aquatic ecosystems has been highlighted by a Principal Component Analysis (PCA).