Minimum Flows and Levels Method of the St. Johns River Water Management District,Florida, USA

The St. Johns River Water Management District (SJRWMD) has developed a minimum flows and levels (MFLs) method that has been applied to rivers, lakes, wetlands, and springs. The method is primarily focused on ecological protection to ensure systems meet or exceed minimum eco-hydrologic requirements. MFLs are not calculated from past hydrology. Information from elevation transects is typically used to determine MFLs. Multiple MFLs define a minimum hydrologic regime to ensure that high, intermediate, and low hydrologic conditions are protected. MFLs are often expressed as statistics of long-term hydrology incorporating magnitude (flow and/or level), duration (days), and return interval (years). Timing and rates of change, the two other critical hydrologic components, should be sufficiently natural. The method is an event-based, non-equilibrium approach. The method is used in a regulatory water management framework to ensure that surface and groundwater withdrawals do not cause significant harm to the water resources and ecology of the above referenced system types. MFLs are implemented with hydrologic water budget models that simulate long-term system hydrology. The method enables a priori hydrologic assessments that include the cumulative effects of water withdrawals. Additionally, the method can be used to evaluate management options for systems that may be over-allocated or for eco-hydrologic restoration projects. The method can be used outside of the SJRWMD. However, the goals, criteria, and indicators of protection used to establish MFLs are system-dependent. Development of regionally important criteria and indicators of protection may be required prior to use elsewhere.     

Contaminant Profiles of Two Species of Shorebirds Foraging Together at Two Neighboring Sites in South San Francisco Bay, California

The San Francisco Bay estuary isused by over one million shorebirds during springmigration and is home to several hundred thousandduring the winter. Most shorebird use occurs in thesouthern reach of the estuary (South Bay). Thereduced water circulation and discharge fromindustrial sources in the South Bay are responsiblefor the highest levels of some trace elements in theestuary. Wintering shorebirds have been found to havestrong site fidelity to areas as small as a fewkilometers in the South Bay, which may increase theirexposure to contaminants near local point sources. Inaddition, different shorebird species foraging at thesame site have been shown to have differentcontaminant burdens. Thus, our objectives were totest whether contaminant burdens differed by species,or whether contaminant burdens differed in shorebirdscollected at adjacent sites. We examined thecontaminant profiles of two species of shorebirds,long-billed dowitchers (Limnodromus scolopaceus)and western sandpipers (Calidris mauri) thatforage together at two sites, Hayward and Newark,separated by 8 km in the South Bay. We usedmultivariate analysis of variance tests to compare thecomposition of 14 elemental analytes in their livertissues and estimated their molar ratios of Hg and Se. Composite samples were used for contaminant analysesbecause of the small body size of the shorebirds. Seven elemental analytes (Ag, Ba, Be, Cr, Ni, Pb, V)were below detection limits in a majority of thesamples so statistical analyses were precluded. Inthe measurable analytes (As, Cd, Cu, Hg, Mn, Se, Zn),we found no significant intra-site differences ofcontaminant profiles for the two species. We pooledthe samples to examine inter-site differences andfound significant differences in contaminant profilesbetween shorebirds at the neighboring sites (P = 0.03). Shorebirds at Newark had higher (P < 0.05) concentrations of As, Cd, and Se than those at Hayward. Dowitchers at Newark had concentrations of Hg and Se which were highly correlated (P < 0.003) in a mean molar ratio of 1:19, similar tothat reported in other birds. In the larger dowitcherspecies, we also examined exposure to 20organochlorine compounds. Organic analyses showedthat the dowitchers had been exposed to DDE, PCBs,dieldrin and trans-nonachlor, but with no significantdifferences in concentrations between Hayward andNewark (P > 0.05).     

Influence of soil pH and application rate on the oxidation of calcium sulfite derived from flue gas desulfurization

Calcium sulfite hemihydrate (CaSO(3).0.5H2O), a common byproduct of coal-fired utilities, is fairly insoluble and can decompose to release toxic SO2 under highly acidic soil conditions; however, it can also oxidize to form gypsum. The objective of this study was to examine the effects of application rate and soil pH on the oxidation of calcium sulfite under laboratory conditions. Oxidation rates measured by release of SO4-S to solution decreased with increasing application rate. Leachate SO4-S from soils amended with 1.0 to 3.0 g kg-1 CaSO3 increased over a 21 to 28 d period before reaching a plateau. At 4 g kg-1, maximum SO4-S release was delayed until Week 7. Oxidation and release of SO4-S from soil amended with 3.0 g kg-1 calcium sulfite increased markedly with decreasing soil pH. After only 3 d incubation, the concentrations of SO4-S in aqueous leachates were 77, 122, 170, 220, and 229 mg L-1 for initial soil pH values of 7.8, 6.5, 5.5, 5.1, and 4.0, respectively. At an initial soil pH value of 4.0, oxidation/dissolution did not increase much after 3 d. At higher pH values, oxidation was maximized after 21 d. These results suggest that autumn surface applications of calcium sulfite in no-till systems should permit ample time for oxidation/dissolution reactions to occur without introducing biocidal effects related to oxygen scavenging. Soil and annual crops can thus benefit from additions of soluble Ca and SO4 if calcium sulfite is applied in advance of spring planting.     

Farmers' perceptions of constraints to plantain production in Ghana

SUMMARY

Plantain (Musa AAB), a primary food crop in Ghana, is a key component in sustainable agricultural systems in high rainfall zones. Recently, there has been a substantial yield decline and reduction in plantation life. To elucidate the context in which intervention strategies should be developed, a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was conducted at five villages in the major plantain-producing belt of Ghana. The importance of plantain as a preferred food was confirmed, although farmers tended to sell plantain for cash income, using cheaper, less preferred alternatives for home consumption. Farmers identified decreasing soil fertility, the high cost of labour for weeding, pests and diseases, lack of good quality planting material and marketing-related issues as the major production constraints. Due to declining productivity in less fertile regions, plantain has been replaced with other food crops such as cassava and maize. Farmers overestimated the importance of insect pests but were unaware of the extensive damage that could be caused by nematodes and the foliar disease, black sigatoka. They observed, however, that pest damage is more severe when soil fertility is poor. Clearly, integrated pest management is likely to be most effective when practiced within the context of cropping systems management; sustainable strategies that are being developed for resource-limited plantain farmers in Ghana are discussed.     

Ammonia modeling for assessing potential toxicity to fish species in the Rio Grande, 1989-2002.

Increasing volumes of treated and untreated human sewage discharged into rivers around the world are likely to be leading to high aquatic concentrations of toxic, unionized ammonia (NH3), with negative impacts on species and ecosystems. Tools and approaches are needed for assessing the dynamics of NH3. This paper describes a modeling approach for first-order assessment of potential NH3 toxicity in urban rivers. In this study daily dissolved NH3 concentrations in the Rio Grande of central New Mexico, USA, at the city of Albuquerque's treated sewage outfall were modeled for 1989-2002. Data for ammonium (NH4+) concentrations in the sewage and data for discharge, temperature, and pH for both sewage effluent and the river were used. We used State of New Mexico acute and chronic NH3- N concentration values (0.30 and 0.05 mg/L NH3-N, respectively) and other reported standards as benchmarks for determining NH3 toxicity in the river and for assessing potential impact on population dynamics for fish species. A critical species of concern is the Rio Grande silvery minnow (Hybognathus amarus), an endangered species in the river near Albuquerque. Results show that NH3 concentrations matched or exceeded acute levels 13%, 3%, and 4% of the time in 1989, 1991, and 1992, respectively. Modeled NH3 concentrations matched or exceeded chronic values 97%, 74%, 78%, and 11% of the time in 1989, 1991, 1992, and 1997, respectively. Exceedences ranged from 0% to 1% in later years after enhancements to the wastewater treatment plant. Modeled NH3 concentrations may differ from actual concentrations because of NH3 and NH4+ loss terms and additive terms such as mixing processes, volatilization, nitrification, sorbtion, and NH4+ uptake. We conclude that NH3 toxicity must be considered seriously for its potential ecological impacts on the Rio Grande and as a mechanism contributing to the decline of the Rio Grande fish community in general and the Rio Grande silvery minnow specifically. Conclusions drawn for the Rio Grande suggest that NH3 concentrations may be high in rivers around the world where alkaline pH values are prevalent and sewage treatment capabilities are poorly developed or absent.     

Laboratory study using paper mill lime mud for agronomic benefit

Annual ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) is an important cool-season forage grass in the southeastern US. Since large portions of soils in this region are too acidic for optimum ryegrass production, there exists an opportunity to use lime mud waste from numerous regional pulp and paper mills as an agricultural liming material. In this study, four lime mud application rates, 2.25 (L₁), 4.51 (L₂), 9.01 (L₃), and 22.50 (L₄) ton ha⁻¹, dry weight basis, and a control (L₀) were evaluated for response to ryegrass growth during the first 6 weeks to estimate an optimum application range over the testing soil for future field test. Results indicated that applied lime mud slowed ryegrass germination and seedling emergence, with differences of whole plant length among treatments L₀–L₄ significant only during the first three weeks. Differences of whole plant dry weight among treatments L₀–L₄ reduced thereafter. The initial soil pH increase due to the lime mud application dropped in treatments L₁–L₄ by the end of the 6-week experiment. The optimum lime mud application range was estimated between L₂ and L₃, which provided higher ryegrass yields (kg ha⁻¹) of 84 and 80 over 77 of the control and complied with the Code of Federal Regulation, CFR 40 Part 503 for land application.     

Influence of pH on persulfate oxidation of TCE at ambient temperatures

In situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) is a technology used for groundwater remediation. This laboratory study investigated the use of the oxidant sodium persulfate for the chemical oxidation of trichloroethylene (TCE) at near ambient temperatures (10, 20 and 30 degrees C) to determine the influence of pH (pH=4, 7 and 9) on the reaction rate (i.e., pseudo-first-order rate constants) over the range of temperatures utilized. TCE solutions (60 mg l(-1); 0.46 mM) were prepared in phosphate buffered RO water and a fixed persulfate/TCE molar ratio of 50/1 was employed in all tests. Half-lives of TCE degradation at 10, 20 and 30 degrees C (pH 7) were 115.5, 35.0 and 5.5h, respectively. Maximum TCE degradation occurred at pH 7. Lowering system pH resulted in a greater decrease in TCE degradation rates than increasing system pH. Radical scavenging tests used to identify predominant radical species suggested that the sulfate radical (SO(4)(.-)) predominates under acidic conditions and the hydroxyl radical (.OH) predominates under basic conditions. In a side by side comparison of TCE degradation in a groundwater vs. unbuffered RO water it was demonstrated that when the system pH is buffered to near neutral pH conditions due to the presence of natural occurring groundwater constituents that the TCE degradation rate is higher than in unbuffered RO water where the system pH dropped from 5.9 to 2.8. The results of this study suggest that in a field application of ISCO, pH should be monitored and adjusted to near neutral if necessary.     

Chemical and biological recovery from acid deposition within the Honnedaga Lake watershed,New York,USA

Honnedaga Lake in the Adirondack region of New York has sustained a heritage brook trout population despite decades of atmospheric acid deposition. Detrimental impacts from acid deposition were observed from 1920 to 1960 with the sequential loss of acid-sensitive fishes, leaving only brook trout extant in the lake. Open-lake trap net catches of brook trout declined for two decades into the late 1970s, when brook trout were considered extirpated from the lake but persisted in tributary refuges. Amendments to the Clean Air Act in 1990 mandated reductions in sulfate and nitrogen oxide emissions. By 2000, brook trout had re-colonized the lake coincident with reductions in surface-water sulfate, nitrate, and inorganic monomeric aluminum. No changes have been observed in surface-water acid-neutralizing capacity (ANC) or calcium concentration. Observed increases in chlorophyll a and decreases in water clarity reflect an increase in phytoplankton abundance. The zooplankton community exhibits low species richness, with a scarcity of acid-sensitive Daphnia and dominance by acid-tolerant copepods. Trap net surveys indicate that relative abundance of adult brook trout population has significantly increased since the 1970s. Brook trout are absent in 65 % of tributaries that are chronically acidified with ANC of <0 μeq/L and toxic aluminum levels (>2 μmol/L). Given the current conditions, a slow recovery of chemistry and biota is expected in Honnedaga Lake and its tributaries. We are exploring the potential to accelerate the recovery of brook trout abundance in Honnedaga Lake through lime applications to chronically and episodically acidified tributaries.     

Design and validation of a passive deposition sampler

A new, passive particle deposition air sampler, called the Einstein-Lioy Deposition Sampler (ELDS), has been developed to fill a gap in passive sampling for near-field particle emissions. The sampler can be configured in several ways: with a protective hood for outdoor sampling, without a protective hood, and as a dust plate. In addition, there is an XRF-ready option that allows for direct sampling onto a filter-mounted XRF cartridge which can be used in conjunction with all configurations. A wind tunnel was designed and constructed to test the performance of different sampler configurations using a test dust with a known particle size distribution. The sampler configurations were also tested versus each other to evaluate whether or not the protective hood would affect the collected particle size distribution. A field study was conducted to test the sampler under actual environmental conditions and to evaluate its ability to collect samples for chemical analysis. Individual experiments for each configuration demonstrated precision of the sampler. The field experiment demonstrated the ability of the sampler to both collect mass and allow for the measurement of an environmental contaminant i.e. Cr(6+). The ELDS was demonstrated to be statistically not different for Hooded and Non-Hooded models, compared to each other and the test dust; thus, it can be used indoors and outdoors in a variety of configurations to suit the user's needs.     

Performance of a woodchip filter to treat dairy soiled water

The milking process on dairy farms produces wastewaters, known as dairy soiled waters (DSW), which contain variable concentrations of nutrients. The most common method of disposal is by application to land. However, this practise can result in the pollution of nearby receiving water bodies. A laboratory study, comprising two sets of 0.5?m, 1?m and 1.5?m-deep filters loaded at two loading rates, examined the performance of woodchip filters in treating DSW. The filters comprised de-barked Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) woodchips. Dried DSW was reconstituted to 1% and 3% suspended solids (SS) concentrations and was applied at 28?L/m(2).d to the surface of the filters at loading rates of 280?g?SS/m(2).d and 840?g?SS/m(2).d, respectively. Filters were loaded for a maximum of 277 days. The filters achieved substantial decreases in SS (>99%), chemical oxygen demand (COD) (>97%) and total nitrogen (TN) (>89%). The dominant treatment mechanism appears to be physical filtration, but sorption and biological uptake likely also play a role. As the filters are aerobic, mineralisation and nitrification occur, but gaseous N losses are probably not significant. Woodchip shows potential as a filter medium for treating DSW, significantly decreasing the concentrations of SS, COD and TN.