Renewable energy and greenhouse gas emissions from the waste sectors of European Union member states: a panel data analysis

In the last two decades, there has been a rich debate about the environmental degradation that results from exposure to solid urban waste. Growing public concern with environmental issues has led to the implementation of various strategic plans for waste management in several developed countries, especially in the European Union. In this paper, the relationships were assessed between economic growth, renewable energy extraction and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the waste sector. The Environmental Kuznets Curve hypothesis was analysed for the member states of the European Union, in the presence of electricity generation, landfill and GHG emissions for the period 1995 to 2012. The results revealed that there is no inverted-U-shaped relationship between income and GHG emissions in European Union countries. The renewable fuel extracted from waste contributes to a reduction in GHG, and although the electricity produced also increases emissions somewhat, they would be far greater if the waste-based generation of renewable energy did not take place. The waste sector needs to strengthen its political, economic, institutional and social communication instruments to meet its aims for mitigating the levels of pollutants generated by European economies. To achieve the objectives of the Horizon 2020 programme, currently in force in the countries of the European Union, it will be necessary to increase the share of renewable energy in the energy mix.     

Larval outbreaks in West Greenland: Instant and subsequent effects on tundra ecosystem productivity and CO<Subscript>2</Subscript> exchange

Insect outbreaks can have important consequences for tundra ecosystems. In this study, we synthesise available information on outbreaks of larvae of the noctuid moth Eurois occulta in Greenland. Based on an extensive dataset from a monitoring programme in Kobbefjord, West Greenland, we demonstrate effects of a larval outbreak in 2011 on vegetation productivity and CO₂ exchange. We estimate a decreased carbon (C) sink strength in the order of 118–143 g C m^?2, corresponding to 1210–1470 tonnes C at the Kobbefjord catchment scale. The decreased C sink was, however, counteracted the following years by increased primary production, probably facilitated by the larval outbreak increasing nutrient turnover rates. Furthermore, we demonstrate for the first time in tundra ecosystems, the potential for using remote sensing to detect and map insect outbreak events.     

Avoidance behaviour of Enchytraeus albidus: effects of benomyl, carbendazim, phenmedipham and different soil types

Enchytraeids are typical inhabitants of many soils, contributing to vital processes of this environmental compartment. Indirectly they are involved in regulating the degradation of organic matter, as well as improving the pore structure of the soil. Due to their behaviour, they are able to avoid unfavourable environmental conditions. Avoidance tests with enchytraeids, initially developed with earthworms by several authors, are quick and easy to perform. With these tests a first assessment of the toxicity of a (contaminated or spiked) soil is possible in just 48 h by using the reaction of the enchytraeids as measurement endpoint. In this period of time the organisms can choose between the control soil and the other soil (a contaminated or spiked or another soil with different physico-chemical properties). In the tests reported here, the enchytraeids were exposed to control soils spiked with the fungicides Benomyl and Carbendazim and the herbicide Phenmedipham. Several chemical concentrations were tested in order to evaluate the avoidance behaviour to toxic substances. In fact, often these short-term screening tests gave results showing avoidance at concentrations in a range similar to the acute test results but, higher than in chronic tests. Further tests are needed to decide whether the results gained in this study can be extrapolated to other chemicals. It is proposed to standardize the Enchytraeid Avoidance Test as it is currently done for the Earthworm Avoidance Test by the International Standard Organization (ISO).     

Are N and S deposition altering the mineral composition of Norway spruce and Scots pine needles in Finland?

Data from a large-scale foliar survey were used to calculate the extent to which N and S deposition determined the mineral composition of Scots pine and Norway spruce needles in Finland. Foliar data were available from 367 needle samples collected on 36 plots sampled almost annually between 1987 and 2000. A literature study of controlled experiments revealed that acidifying deposition mediates increasing N and S concentrations, and decreasing Mg:N and Ca:Al ratios in the needles. When this fingerprint for N and S elevated deposition on tree foliage was observed simultaneously with increased N and S inputs, it was considered sufficient evidence for assuming that acidifying deposition had altered the mineral composition of tree needles on that plot in the given year. Evidence for deposition-induced changes in the mineral composition of tree foliage was calculated on the basis of a simple frequency model. In the late eighties the evidence was found on 43% of the Norway spruce and 27% of Scots pine plots. The proportion of changed needle mineral composition decreased to below 8% for both species in the late nineties.     

Photo-Fenton-assisted ozonation of p-Coumaric acid in aqueous solution

The degradation of p-Coumaric acid present in olive oil mill wastewater was investigated as a pretreatment stage to obtain more easily biodegradable molecules, with lower toxicity that facilitates subsequent anaerobic digestion. Thus, photo-Fenton-assisted ozonation has been studied and compared with ozonation at alkaline pH and conventional single ultraviolet (UV) and acid ozonation treatments. In the combined process, the overall kinetic rate constant was split into various components: direct oxidation by UV light, direct oxidation by ozone and oxidation by hydroxyl radicals. Molecular and/or radical ozone reaction was studied by conducting the reaction in the presence and absence of tert-butylalcohol at pHs 2, 7 and 9. Ozone oxidation rate increases with pH or by the addition of Fenton reagent and/or UV radiation due to generation of hydroxyl radicals, *OH. Hydrogen peroxide and ferrous ion play a double role during oxidation since at low concentrations they act as initiators of hydroxyl radicals but at high concentrations they act as radical scavengers. Finally, the additional levels of degradation by formation of hydroxyl radicals have been quantified in comparison to the conventional single processes and an equation is proposed for the reaction rate as a function of studied operating variables.     

Environmental threats to buried archaeological remains

The last century's environmental pollution has created health problems, acidification of ground and lakes, and serious damage to our cultural heritage. Outdoor monuments suffer from this pollution, but so do buried archaeological remains. However, research on the deterioration of archaeological artifacts underground has so far been limited, and it is important to draw attention to this neglected field. This article presents results obtained at the Swedish National Heritage Board on the degradation of archaeological objects of bronze and iron and of bones from prehistoric graves, materials of which seem to be most affected by pollutants. The investigation methods, which were employed, are described. Other relevant studies are briefly reviewed. It is obvious that the deterioration rate of archaeological artifacts, especially of inorganic materials, has accelerated in recent years, and that this increased deterioration to a large part can be attributed to anthropogenic pollution. Regions that might be endangered are exemplified.     

Temporal trends of organochlorine contamination in Black Guillemots in Iceland from 1976 to 1996

The levels of several different persistent organochlorines (OCs) in Black Guillemots Cepphus grylle, collected during the summers of 1976-1996 at Breioafj?rour in W-Iceland, were investigated. The levels of about 40 different organochlorines (PCBs, DDTs, chlordanes, toxaphenes, HCH, HCB) were compared with respect to age, sex, fat content, and year of collection. The levels of PCBs correlated very closely with those of DDE, indicating long-range transport as the major source of these contaminants in Iceland, with the ratio PCBs/DDE mostly in the range of 2-5. Unlike the Gyrfalcon Falco rusticolus, the organochlorine levels did not seem to accumulate substantially with age, neither in males nor females. The variation in the levels of OCs at the age of 2 years was even greater than the variation in OC levels over an age range of 12 years. In immature birds the levels of PCBs, DDE, HCB and beta-HCH declined very slowly (T(1/2) from 12 to 20 years) over the years 1976-1996, whereas the levels of alpha-HCH and p,p'-DDT declined much faster. The levels of trans-nonachlor, alpha-chlordane, gamma-chlordane, oxychlordane, and toxaphene did not correlate with the year of collection. As the Black Guillemot is mostly a resident seabird, feeding mainly on small fish and invertebrates, this investigation should give a good indication of the temporal trends of organochlorine pollution at Breioafj?rour, Iceland, during this 20 year period and is likely to reflect baseline trends in the marine environment of the North-Atlantic Ocean.     

Concentrations and fluxes of organic compounds in the atmosphere of the Swedish west coast

Measurements of organic compounds in air and deposition have been carried out in parallel on the Swedish west coast. In this investigation the importance of long-range transport for the occurrence of organic compounds in deposition has been studied. Air samples were collected using a high volume sampler (HVS) and the deposition was sampled on a 1 m² Teflon-coated horizontal surface with runoff for the precipitation to an adsorbent. The samples were analyzed in order to identify and quantify different semivolatile compounds such as PAH and petrogenic hydrocarbons and chlorinated compounds such as PCB, HCH and HCB. Qualitative differences between the content of organic compounds in air and deposition during periods with varying levels of air pollution and different meteorological conditions have been studied and a comparison with other air pollutants, such as soot, has been carried out. The results of the measurements show that deposition of PAH and other hydrocarbons takes place continuously but the greatest amounts are measured in the deposition in connection with episodes together with heavy precipitation. The highest concentrations of PCB and HCH in the air were obtained during a warm dry period in May and the greatest amounts were deposited in a period in May with heavy precipitation.     

Factors influencing farmers’ decisions on nitrogen fertilizer application in the Liangzihu Lake basin,Central China

Overuse of nitrogen (N) fertilizers in agriculture activities has caused severe water pollution in China. The lack of data at producer level hampers decision makers in the development and implementation of efficient policies to curb excessive N-fertilizer use. In a survey of 300 farm households in the Liangzihu Lake basin, we identified factors associated with farmers’ decisions on N-fertilizer use and application rate. Household survey and multiple linear regression models indicate that the average application rate in the study region is 229 kg N ha^?1, which exceeds the recommended rate for maximum profit for cereal crops (maize, wheat, and rice) in China of 150–180 kg N ha^?1. High N-application rates are associated with low farmland productivity (coefficient = ?15.66, p = 0.02), a high share of off-farm income (coefficient = 27.14, p = 0.003), and a low education level of the household head (coefficient = ?10.83, p = 0.039). Neither physical infrastructure nor access to input markets appears to be related to N-application rates. It may be concluded that excessive use of N in agriculture of Central China is mainly a problem of insufficient awareness and high share of off-farm income.     

Sustainable forest management in a mountain region in the Central Western Carpathians,northeastern Slovakia: the role of climate change

European forestry is facing many challenges, including the need to adapt to climate change and an unprecedented increase in forest damage. We investigated these challenges in a Norway spruce-dominated mountain region in Central Europe. We used the model Sibyla to explore forest biomass production to the year 2100 under climate change and under two alternative management systems: the currently applied management (CM), which strives to actively improve the forest’s adaptive capacity, and no management (NM) as a reference. Because biodiversity is thought to have mostly positive effects on the adaptive capacity of forests and on the quality of ecosystem services, we explored how climate change and management affect indicators of biodiversity. We found a differential response across the elevation-climatic gradient, including a drought-induced decrease in biomass production over large areas. With CM, the support of non-spruce species and the projected improvement of their growth increased tree species diversity. The promotion of species with higher survival rates led to a decrease in forest damage relative to both the present conditions and NM. NM preserved the high density of over-matured spruce trees, which caused forest damage to increase. An abundance of dead wood and large standing trees, which can increase biodiversity, increased with NM. Our results suggest that commercial spruce forests, which are not actively adapted to climate change, tend to preserve their monospecific composition at a cost of increased forest damage. The persisting high rates of damage along with the adverse effects of climate change make the prospects of such forests uncertain.