The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Founded by: Otto Hutzinger – Publisher: Springer – Editors-in-chief: Damià Barceló · Andrey G. Kostianoy – ISSN: 1867-979X

BOOKS

The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry Founded by: Otto Hutzinger – Publisher: Springer – Editors-in-chief: Damià Barceló · Andrey G. Kostianoy – ISSN: 1867-979X     

Trends in atmospheric reactive nitrogen for the Eastern United States

Reactive nitrogen can travel far from emission sources and impact sensitive ecosystems. From 2002 to 2006, policy actions have led to decreases in NO(x) emissions from power plants and motor vehicles. In this study, atmospheric chemical transport modeling demonstrates that these emissions reductions have led to a downward trend in ambient measurements of transported reactive nitrogen, especially atmospheric concentrations and wet deposition of nitrate. The trend in reduced nitrogen, namely ammonium, is ambiguous. As reduced nitrogen becomes a larger fraction of the reactive nitrogen budget, wide-spread NH(3) measurements and improved NH(3) emissions assessments are a critical need.     

Protein-Polymer Grafts via a Soy Protein Derived Macro-RAFT Chain Transfer Agent

Methodology to produce materials derived from renewable resources is of great importance in decreasing both environmental impact as well as dependence on fossil fuels. We report a straightforward method of polymer grafting to soy protein hydrolysates, which are available in surplus. Benzylthiocarbonate moieties were installed on the protein surface via amidation of free amino groups, creating a protein macro chain transfer agent (CTA) for reversible addition fragmentation transfer (RAFT) polymerization. We found that subjection of this soy protein macro-CTA (SP-CTA) to RAFT polymerization conditions with polar acrylate monomers resulted in protein-polymer nanometer-scale particles with solubility properties dictated by monomer polarity. Polymer grafting, particle size and polymerization were characterized by elemental analysis, transmission electron microscopy and gel permeation chromatography. We anticipate that this method of grafting will be of use in generation of new materials based on renewable resources.     

A Cost Analysis of Waste Management in the Steel Industry

Recent Federal legislation on the implementation and enforcement of environmental quality standards requires an economic analysis of industrial waste treatment. Estimates of abatement costs provide information on the adequacy of industrial programs to meet current standards and the likely economic impact of future controls.     

Sulfur Dioxide Standards: Primary More Restrictive Than Secondary?

The fuel shortage has encouraged the utilization of high sulfur fuels in those facilities where they can be used in an environmentally safe manner. A study was undertaken by the State of Iowa to correlate sulfur content of coals, stack heights, and maximum ground level concentrations from power plants. This study revealed that the primary National Ambient Air Quality Standards for SO₂ are more restrictive than the secondary standard in almost all cases. This conclusion is contrary to the position that the attainment of the secondary standard could beata later date than the attainment of the primary standards.     

Ambient measurements of 2,2,4-trimethyl, 1,3-pentanediol monoisobutyrate in Southern California

2,2,4-trimethyl, 1,3-pentanediol monoisobutyrate (TPM) is a widely used solvent found in water-based coatings. Ambient measurements of TPM are reported here for the first time. Although this compound has been previously measured in indoor air, this study illustrates successful detection and quantification of TPM in ambient air at three locations in Southern California: Pico Rivera, Azusa, and Riverside. TPM was detected in every sample collected, with concentrations ranging from 0.7 to 49.5 parts per trillion (ppt). Collections took place during summer 2009, fall 2009, winter 2009/2010, and spring 2010, for 5–7 days during each season. The highest mean concentrations were observed during the summer months for each city, when coating activities are typically at their highest.

Implications 2,2,4-Trimethyl, 1,3-pentanediol monoisobutyrate (TPM) is a widely used solvent found in water-based coatings. Ambient measurements of TPM are reported here for the first time. The highest mean concentrations were observed during the summer months for each city, when coating activities are typically at their highest. Unreacted TPM constitutes approximately 0.01% of the total nonmethane hydrocarbon (NMHC) concentrations in the Los Angeles air basin and given its slow reactivity rate in forming ozone, this would be an approximate upper limit for the fraction of ozone that it is responsible for forming.     

A Wind Tunnel Study to Design Large,Open-top Chambers for Whole-tree Pollutant Exposure Experiments

A wind tunnel study was conducted to determine the optimal design features of a large, open-top chamber, as needed for pollution exposure studies on mature trees. An optimally-designed, open-top chamber must minimize the incursion of ambient air through its opening and maintain a uniform treatment concentration throughout the chamber. The design features of interest are the diameter and height of the chamber and the deflection angle and opening size of any frustum that may be mounted on top of a model chamber.

Design specifications depend on the turbulence regime about the chamber, which is influenced by the nature of the surrounding vegetation. Consequently, our investigation was performed on scale-model, open-top chambers in a wind tunnel populated with a model coniferous forest. Turbulence measurements demonstrated the similarity between the turbulence regime of the model and a natural forest. A hydrocarbon tracer was injected into the wind tunnel flow to characterize chamber performance.

The main design features of open-top chambers are the velocity of air exiting through the top and the relationship between the length scale of the turbulence and the diameter of the chamber opening. As exit velocities increase, the proportion of eddies with sufficient force to penetrate into the chamber decrease. Therefore, for equal volumetric air flows, smaller opening sizes increase the exit velocities and reduce the number and extent of ambient air incursions. Almost total exclusion of ambient air is achieved as the exit velocity of the air exceeds the magnitude of one standard deviation of the vertical wind velocity measured at the chamber top. The incursion of ambient air is also reduced when the diameter of the chamber opening is smaller than the characteristic length scale of the turbulence, a measure of mean eddy size.

Frusta deflect air flow over the chamber. Three prototypes, with 30?, 45? and 60-degree angles were tested. A 30-degree frustum slightly improves the performance of the chamber and is more effective in preventing ambient air from entraining into the chamber opening than frusta with either a 45? or 60-degree angle. A flatter frustum allows for a smoother transition in the wind velocity streamline and is less apt to cause wake turbulence, as is the case with steeper frusta.

Knowledge of the turbulence characteristics of plant canopies are readily available in the literature and can aid scientists and engineers in designing the optimal chamber and frusta dimensions for their particular application. Therefore, the empirical approach to chamber design can be avoided, and substantial savings can be realized.     

Evaluation of Watering to Control Dust in High Winds

ABSTRACT

A field study was conducted to determine the effectiveness of watering in controlling PM₁₀ emissions under high wind conditions. The focus of the study was the pickup of soil by a belly scraper at a landfill. Four low-volume PM₁₀ samplers were positioned downwind of the storage pile (at two distances, 80 and 110 m, and two elevations, 1 and 3 m) and one was located upwind at 3 m elevation. Integrating nephelometers, which measure the particu-late light scattering coefficient, b_sp, were also set up at locations 80 and 110 m downwind of the storage pile. Wind speed and direction were measured on-site. Samples were collected for two periods, one with and one without water being applied. Watering was effective at reducing PM₁₀ emissions at wind speeds up to the maximum 18 m sec^-1 observed at the landfill soil pickup operation. Measurement of b_sp provided an indication of PM₁₀ concentrations with better time resolution than samplers, but not with sufficient resolution, under the instrumental conditions used, to correlate with wind gusts.     

Mercury Measurement and Its Control: What We Know,Have Learned,and Need to Further Investigate

ABSTRACT

Based on the available evidence of health effects, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been evaluating the need to regulate mercury releases to the environment. In response to the congressional mandates in The 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments (CAAA), the EPA has issued the Mercury Study Report and the Study of Hazardous Air Pollutant Emissions from Electric Utility Steam Generating Units Report. In spite of the enormous effort represented by these reports, as well as the efforts of both the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), in conducting the field measurement programs that form the basis for these reports, a definitive answer on the need for mercury regulation has not been found. However, the EPA, as well as other regulatory agencies and health researchers, have suggested a “plausible link” between anthropogenic sources emitting mercury and the methylation, bioaccumulation in the food chain, and adverse health effects in humans and wildlife.

Policy-makers have recognized that regulations must be based on good science and that a number of issues still remain. These issues can generally be grouped into four main categories: emissions inventory, control technology, fate of releases, and health effects. This paper will discuss recent, ongoing, and planned studies to address the remaining issues regarding the presence of mercury in the environment, with an emphasis on those studies that are directly related to the DOE/Federal Energy Technology Center’s (FETC) programmatic effort.