Preliminary toxicological assessment of phthalate esters from drinking water consumed in Portugal

This paper reports, for the first time, the concentrations of selected phthalates in drinking water consumed in Portugal. The use of bottled water in Portugal has increased in recent years. The main material for bottles is polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Its plasticizer components can contaminate water by leaching, and several scientific studies have evidenced potential health risks of phthalates to humans of all ages. With water being one of the most essential elements to human health and because it is consumed by ingestion, the evaluation of drinking water quality, with respect to phthalate contents, is important. This study tested seven commercial brands of bottled water consumed in Portugal, six PET and one glass (the most consumed) bottled water. Furthermore, tap water from Lisbon and three small neighbor cities was analyzed. Phthalates (di-n-butyl phthalate ester (DnBP), bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate ester (DEHP), and di-i-butyl phthalate ester (DIBP)) in water samples were quantified (PET and glass) by means of direct immersion solid-phase microextraction and ionic liquid gas chromatography associated with flame ionization detection or mass spectrometry due to their high boiling points and water solubility. The method utilized in this study showed a linear range for target phthalates between 0.02 and 6.5 μg L^?1, good precision and low limits of detection that were between 0.01 and 0.06 μg L^?1, and quantitation between 0.04 and 0.19 μg L^?1. Only three phthalates were detected in Portuguese drinking waters: dibutyl (DnBP), diisobutyl (DIBP), and di(ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP). Concentrations ranged between 0.06 and 6.5 μg L^?1 for DnBP, between 0.02 and 0.16 μg L^?1 for DEHP, and between 0.1 and 1.89 μg L^?1 for DIBP. The concentration of DEHP was found to be up to five times higher in PET than in glass bottled water. Surprisingly, all the three phthalates were detected in glass bottled water with the amount of DnBP being higher (6.5 μg L^?1) than in PET bottled water. These concentrations do not represent direct risk to human health. Regarding potable tap water, only DIBP and DEHP were detected. Two of the cities showed concentration of all three phthalates in their water below the limits of detection of the method. All the samples showed phthalate concentrations below 6 μg L^?1, the maximum admissible concentration in water established by the US Environmental Protection Agency. The concentrations measured in Portuguese bottled waters do not represent any risk for adult's health.     

Spatio-temporal variability in fatty acid trophic biomarkers in stomach contents and muscle of Iberian sardine (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sardina pilchardus</Emphasis>) and its relationship with spawning

Temporal variation in the fatty acid (FA) composition of stomach contents of Iberian sardines was compared to the relative contribution to dietary carbon made by different prey types for fish from two areas off Portugal. The effect of the FA content of the diet on sardine muscle FA composition was also studied, aiming at (1) analysing if FA biomarkers can be used as a complementary technique for the study of sardine diet and (2) to relate spatial and temporal variations of prey FA content with sardine condition and reproduction. Significant spatial differences in the FA composition of sardine diet occurred with concentrations of n-3 polyunsaturated FA, namely eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA, 20:5n-3] and linolenic acid 18:3n-3, being significantly higher in the diet of sardines from the west coast, whilst the diet of sardines from the south coast was richer in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), namely the carnivory biomarker oleic acid 18:1n-9. These results are in agreement with the higher contribution made by diatoms and dinoflagellates to the diet of sardines off the west coast. Spatial variation in sardine dietary FA was also detected in their muscle composition, specifically for EPA, and the eicosapentaenoic/docosahexaenoic acid and (n-3)/(n-6) ratios, which were higher in sardines from the west coast. No difference in FA composition was detected between sexes, and the seasonal variability in sardine total FA concentration was primarily related to the seasonality of spawning. Sardines accumulate high concentrations of FAs during the resting stage of reproduction when the feeding intensity is similar or lower to that observed during the spawning season. Additionally, sardines show a high selective retention of MUFA and polyunsaturated FA (PUFA) throughout the year except at the beginning of the spawning season, when these FAs are largely invested in the formation of the gonads. Therefore, temporal and regional differences of prey environments are strong enough to be reflected in fish body composition, namely on the accumulation of essential FAs, which can have a strong impact on reproduction success for this species.     

Laboratory study on the leaching potential of spent alkaline batteries

Four different leaching tests were carried out with spent alkaline batteries as an attempt to quantify the environmental potential burdens associated with landfilling. The tests were performed in columns filled up with batteries either entire or cross-cut, using either deionized water or nitric acid solution as leachant. In a first set of tests, the NEN 7343 standard procedure was followed, with leachant circulating in open circuit from bottom to top through columns. These tests were extended to another leaching step where leachant percolated the columns in a closed loop process.Leachate solutions were periodically sampled and pH, conductivity, density, redox potential, sulphates, chlorides and heavy metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Hg, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sb, Tl and Zn) were determined in the samples.The results showed that the total amount of substances leached in tests with cross-cut batteries was higher than with entire ones; zinc and sulphates were the substances found the most in the leachate solutions. In general, the amount of substances dissolved in open circuit is higher than in closed loop due to the effect of solution saturation and the absence of fresh solution addition.Results were compared with metal contents in the batteries and with legal limits for acceptance in landfill (Decision 2003/33/CE and Decree-Law 152/2002). None of the metals were meaningfully dissolved comparatively to its content in the batteries, except Hg. Despite the differences in the experiment procedure used and the one stated in the legislation (mixing, contact time and granulometry), the comparison of results obtained with cross-cut batteries using deionized water with legal limits showed that batteries studied could be considered hazardous waste.     

The importance of tangible and intangible factors in human–carnivore coexistence

Conflict with humans is one of the major threats facing the world's remaining large carnivore populations, and understanding human attitudes is key to improving coexistence. We surveyed people living near Hwange National Park about their attitudes toward coexisting with lions. We used ordinal regression models with the results of the survey to investigate the importance of a range of tangible and intangible factors on attitudes. The variables investigated included the costs and benefits of wildlife presence, emotion, culture, religion, vulnerability, risk perception, notions of responsibility, and personal value orientations. This was for the purpose of effectively tailoring conservation efforts but also for ethical policy making. Intangible factors (e.g., fear and ecocentric values) were as important as, if not more important than, tangible factors (such as livestock losses) for understanding attitudes, based on the effect sizes of these variables. The degree to which participants’ fear of lions interfered with their daily activities was the most influential variable. The degree to which benefits accrue to households from the nearby protected area was also highly influential, as was number of livestock lost, number of dependents, ecocentric value orientation, and participation in conflict mitigation programs. Contrary to what is often assumed, metrics of livestock loss did not dominate attitudes to coexistence with lions. Furthermore, we found that socioeconomic variables may appear important when studied in isolation, but their effect may disappear when controlling for variables related to beliefs, perceptions, and past experiences. This raises questions about the widespread reliance on socioeconomic variables in the field of human–wildlife conflict and coexistence. To facilitate coexistence with large carnivores, we recommend measures that reduce fear (through education and through protective measures that reduce the need to be fearful), reduction of livestock losses, and ensuring local communities benefit from conservation. Ecocentric values also emerged as influential, highlighting the need to develop conservation initiatives tailored to local values.     

The Importance of Place Names in the Search for Ecosystem-Like Concepts in Indigenous Societies: An Example from the Bolivian Andes

This paper aims to deepen the search for ecosystem-like concepts in indigenous societies by highlighting the importance of place names used by Quechua indigenous farmers from the central Bolivian Andes. Villagers from two communities in the Tunari Mountain Range were asked to list, describe, map and categorize the places they knew on their community’s territory. Results show that place names capture spatially explicit units which integrate biotic and abiotic nature and humans, and that there is an emphasis on topographic terms, highlighting the importance of geodiversity. Farmers’ perspectives differ from the classical view of ecosystems because they ‘humanize’ places, considering them as living beings with agency. Consequently, they do not make a distinction between natural and cultural heritage. Their perspective of the environment is that of a personalized, dynamic relationship with the elements of the natural world that are perceived as living entities. A practical implication of the findings for sustainable development is that since places names make the links between people and the elements of the landscape, toponymy is a tool for ecosystem management rooted in indigenous knowledge. Because place names refer to holistic units linked with people’s experience and spatially explicit, they can be used as an entry point to implement an intercultural dialogue for more sustainable land management.     

International retirement migration in the Alicante region,Spain: process,spatial pattern and environmental impacts

International retirement migration has become an increasing phenomenon in the Mediterranean region of Alicante, Spain. Through an interdisciplinary approach, relationships between the migration process, landscape change and environmental impacts are examined. Lifestyle-related perceptions and demands of UK retirees are studied as a major driving force of urbanisation. The extent and quality of the process is assessed by statistical and land use data analysis. Results reveal a distinctive spatial pattern of in-migration and the emergence of an archetypical landscape, consisting of a mosaic of remaining natural and urbanised landscape along the Mediterranean coast. The paper discusses the necessity of retirees' integration into sustainable planning and decision making.     

Natural attenuation of residual heavy metal contamination in soils affected by the Aznalcóllar mine spill, SW Spain

Non-amended soils affected by pyritic sludge residues were monitored for 7 years to assess the long-term natural attenuation ability of these soils. The decrease in both the total concentration of elements (particularly As) and (NH(4))(2)SO(4)-extractable fractions of Mn, and Zn, below the maximum permissible levels indicate a successful natural ability to attenuate soil pollution. Soil acidification by pyrite oxidation and rainfall-enhanced leaching were the largest contributors to the reduction of metals of high (Mn, Cu, Zn and Cd) and low (Fe, Al, and As) availability. Periodic use of correlation and spatial distribution analysis was useful in monitoring elemental dispersion and soil property/element relationships.