A review of the state of research,policies and strategies in addressing leakage from reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+)

Leakage from policies to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) must be monitored, measured and mitigated to ensure their effectiveness. This paper reviews research on leakage at the large (international and national) and small (subnational and project) scales to summarize what we already know, and highlight areas where research is urgently needed. Most (11 of 15) studies published until 2005 estimated leakage of fossil-fuel-based emissions from large-scale interventions such as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Kyoto Protocol. Many studies on leakage from landuse-based emissions more relevant for REDD+ emerged afterwards (11 of 15), mostly focusing on smaller-scale interventions (8 of the 11 studies). There is a deficiency in qualitative studies showing how leakage develops from an intervention, and the factors influencing this process. In–depth empirical research is needed to understand activities and actors causing emissions (Emissions), the way those activities move spatially in response to policies (Displacement), the way policies affect carbon (C) emitting activities (Attribution) and the amount of resulting emissions produced (Quantification). The cart is thence before the horse: the knowledge necessary to form practical and accurate working definitions, typologies and characterizations of leakage is still absent. Despite this, there is a rush to measure, monitor and mitigate leakage. The concept of leakage has not matured enough, leading to vague definitions of leakage, its components, and scale. We suggest ways to improve the concept of leakage and argue for more empirical research and at various scales to add to our collective knowledge of Emissions, Displacement, Attribution and Quantification.     

Cerebro-costo-mandibular syndrome in a father and a female fetus: early prenatal ultrasonographic diagnosis and autosomal dominant transmission

Ultrasonography in a female fetus revealed cystic cervical hygroma, severe micrognathia, and vertebral and upper limb anomalies suggestive of cerebro-costo-mandibular syndrome (CCMS) which was diagnosed ultrasonographically at 16 weeks' gestation. The father is affected and presents with a Pierre Robin sequence, short stature and typical costovertebral anomalies. CCMS is a rare and severe disorder. The high frequency of sporadic cases, vertical transmission, and the excess of sibs affected via horizontal transmission suggest dominant autosomal mutation with possible germinal mosaicism. The vertical familial case detailed in the present report is a reminder of the high risk when one parent or one sibling is affected and the extreme variability of phenotype and costal ossification. Early prenatal ultrasound diagnosis is possible in a severely affected fetus. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

THE FRESHWATER STREAM,A COMPLEX ECOSYSTEM1

A stream is set apart from all other aquatic ecosystems in that the water is continually entering and leaving the stream and is in almost constant motion. Thus, there is essentially a unidirectional flow, a constant mixing of the watery medium, a continuous erosion of the substrate with concomitant changes in the characteristics of the stream bed, and little or no opportunity for the accumulation and retention of the dissolved nutrients. The physical and chemical characteristics of the stream are largely reflections of the physical and chemical makeup of the watershed. Because of the constant replacement of the water as it flows away, new nutrients must be brought into the stream continually in order to support the biotic communities. The kinds and amounts of nutrients that enter the stream determine, to a large extent, the numbers and kinds of organisms in the different communities. The organisms that comprise those communities may be categorized as representative species indigenous to springs, riffles, and pools. Most plants in streams are sessile whereas most of the animals are vagile, at least during some phase of their life cycle. All sessile organisms must depend on the current bringing their foodstuffs to them, but the vagile forms may seek out their foods in different parts of the stream and may even move from one community to another. Each community is adapted to its particular environment. Spring communities, because of the constancy of the physical and chemical environment, may reach what is essentially a “climax” situation and remain stable over long periods of time. Communities that occupy riffle and pool habitats may change from season to season and from year to year depending on changes in temperature, volume of flow, and the character of the substrate. Between each of these kinds of communities there are transitional areas that may be occupied by wider varieties of organisms than any of the three principal kinds of communities. In any event, the continuity of these communities in time and space is determined by the speed of the current which in turn depends upon the volume of flow. On this basis it becomes evident that the characteristics of the biotic communities are different at the source of a stream than at any other location. Similarly, riffle communities are different than those living in pools. The most difficult evaluation to be made in studying a stream ecosystem is that of the interlocking relationships among the many kinds of organisms. The plants, whatever kind they may be, fix carbon and other elements into organic compounds that can be utilized as food by the animals. The multitude of organisms that make up the bottom fauna of any stream are largely supported by the food formed directly by the plants. Such animals as small crustaceans, insect larvae, worms, turbellarians, mollusks, and the like serve as food for the carnivorous species. To determine the role of each organism in maintaining such a complex structure is a tremendous challenge. Many tools and methods are at the disposal of the biologist who dares to undertake such a project. Still, the greatest of all these is the dedication to spending long hours of tedious and, frequently, very hard work.     

Integration of the recycling processes to the life cycle analysis of construction products

The life cycle analysis of a product enables one to assess its environmental quality. A simple, transparent method taking into account the processes of recycling in the life cycle is developed here. It permits dealing with all types of open loops of all sectors. The principles on which the proposed method is grounded are discussed.     

Assessment of relative accuracy in the determination of organic matter concentrations in aquatic systems

Accurate determinations of total (TOC), dissolved (DOC) and particulate (POC) organic carbon concentrations are critical for understanding the geochemical, environmental, and ecological roles of aquatic organic matter. Of particular significance for the drinking water industry, TOC measurements are the basis for compliance with US EPA regulations. The results of an interlaboratory comparison designed to identify problems associated with the determination of organic matter concentrations in drinking water supplies are presented. The study involved 31 laboratories and a variety of commercially available analytical instruments. All participating laboratories performed well on samples of potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP), a compound commonly used as a standard in carbon analysis. However, problems associated with the oxidation of difficult to oxidize compounds, such as dodecylbenzene sulfonic acid and caffeine, were noted. Humic substances posed fewer problems for analysts. Particulate organic matter (POM) in the form of polystyrene beads, freeze-dried bacteria and pulverized leaf material were the most difficult for all analysts, with a wide range of performances reported. The POM results indicate that the methods surveyed in this study are inappropriate for the accurate determination of POC and TOC concentration. Finally, several analysts had difficulty in efficiently separating inorganic carbon from KHP solutions, thereby biasing DOC results.     

Euro Chlor Risk Assessment for the Marine Environment Osparcom Region: North Sea - Tetrachloroethylene

This risk assessment on tetrachloroethylene (PER) was carried out specifically for the marine environment, according to the methodology laid down in the EU risk assessment Regulation (1488/94) and the Guidance Document of the EU New and Existing Substances Regulation (TGD, 1997). The study consists of the collection and evaluation of data on effects and environmental concentrations from analytical monitoring programs in large rivers and estuaries in the North Sea area. The risk is indicated by the ratio of the "predicted environmental concentrations" (PEC) and the "predicted no effect concentrations" (PNEC) for the marine aquatic environment. In total, 18 studies for fish, 13 studies for invertebrates and 8 studies for algae have been evaluated. Both acute and chronic toxicity studies have been taken into account and the appropriate assessment factors have been used to define a PNEC value of 51 µg/l. Most of the available monitoring data apply to rivers and estuary waters and were used to calculate PECs. The most recent data (1991-1995) support a typical PEC of 0.2 µg PER/l water and a worst case PEC of 2.5 µg PER/l water. The calculated PEC/PNEC ratios give a safety margin of 20 to 250 between the predicted no effect concentration and the exposure concentration. Additional evaluation of environmental fate and bioaccumulation characteristics showed that no concern is expected for food chain accumulation.     

Monitoring dissolved organic carbon in surface and drinking waters

The presence of natural organic matter (NOM) strongly impacts drinking water treatment, water quality, and water behavior during distribution. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations were determined daily over a 22 month period in river water before and after conventional drinking water treatment using an on-line total organic carbon (TOC) analyzer. Quantitative and qualitative variations in organic matter were related to precipitation and runoff, seasons and operating conditions. Following a rainfall event, DOC levels could increase by 3.5 fold over baseflow concentrations, while color, UV absorbance values and turbidity increased by a factor of 8, 12 and 300, respectively. Treated water DOC levels were closely related to the source water quality, with an average organic matter removal of 42% after treatment.     

Integrated waste management via the Natural Laws

Summary The basic tools of engineering, energy and material balances and rate expressions, provide a pathway to apply the Natural Laws of Hazardous Waste for proper waste management. Overall, one must focus on nature's limits, which are discussed, using open minded engineering practices for proper waste management. By expansion of balance concepts beyond end-of-pipe and integrating concepts beyond basic life-cycles, as discussed in this paper, the true impact ofwaste management practices may be established. These cradle-to-grave balances are connected to nature's limits via results of recent work by others on risk assessment. The combination of approaches for evaluating concentration limits of chemicals in the environment allows the facility for an engineering solution for proper waste management. The method is presented by making example comparisons of choices of technology for recycling, storage, and site remediation.