Pitfalls of CITES Implementation in Nepal: A Policy Gap Analysis

Implementation of policy involves multiple agencies operating at multiple levels in facilitating processes and actions to accomplish desired results. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was developed and implemented to regulate and control international wildlife trade, but violations of the agreement are widespread and growing worldwide, including in Nepal. This study attempts to understand how domestic CITES policies are translated into action and what effect actions and processes have on compliance. In doing so, this study provides insights into the implementation and enforcement pitfalls of national legislation that explain CITES violations in Nepal. Primarily, we used 26 key informants interviews to learn opinions of experts, and the grounded theory approach for further qualitative data analysis. In addition, we used Najman's (1995) policy implementation analysis framework to explain gaps. Many interrelated variables in the content of the policy, commitment and capacity of the agencies, the roles of clients and coalitions and contextual issues were observed. Variables that emerged suggest pitfalls in the regulatory policy represented by low probability of detection, arrest and punishment. Moreover, redistributive policies in buffer zones of protected areas are needed into perpetuity to benefit locals. Also, conservation organizations' support for building public and political salience is imperative.     

Overcoming the toxicity effects of municipal wastewater sludge and biosolid extracts in the Yeast Estrogen Screen (YES) assay

For nearly two decades, the Yeast Estrogen Screen (YES) has been used as a valuable tool for determining the total estrogenic potency of various environmental samples, including influent and effluent streams at municipal wastewater plants. However, applying the YES assay to wastewater sludges and stabilized biosolids has been problematic. This is due to co-extracted compounds from the solids either proving toxic to the yeast or masking the presence of estrogenic substances. The present research describes the development and validation of sample preparation steps that mitigate the toxicity effects of municipal wastewater sludge and biosolid samples in the YES assay, while allowing for reliable dose-dependent expression of estrogenic activity. A copper work-up for sulfur removal and chromatographic cleanup with silica and alumina were required in addition to solid-phase extraction to adequately remove interfering compounds. Sample stabilization methods such as autoclaving, lyophilization and formaldehyde treatment were found to be detrimental to the assay. Hence, heat-drying is recommended to prevent cytotoxicity and the degradation of estrogenic substances.     

Municipal solid waste management in Africa: strategies and livelihoods in Yaoundé, Cameroon

This paper provides an overview of the state of municipal solid waste (MSW) management in the capital of Cameroon, Yaoundé, and suggests some possible solutions for its improvement. The institutional, financial, and physical aspects of MSW management, as well as the livelihoods of the population, were analyzed. Our study revealed that distances and lack of infrastructure have a major impact on waste collection. Garbage bins are systematically mentioned as the primary infrastructure needed by the population in all quarters, whether it be a high or low standard community. The construction of transfer stations and the installation of garbage bins are suggested as a solution to reduce distances between households and garbage bins, thus improving waste collection vehicle accessibility. Transfer stations and garbage bins would enable the official waste collection company to expand its range of services and significantly improve waste collection rates. Several transfer stations have already been set up by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs), but they require technical, institutional and funding support. Research is needed on the quality and safety of community-made compost, as well as on soil fertility in urban and peri-urban areas. Most of the stakeholders, municipalities, the official waste collection company and households acknowledge the need for better monitoring and regulation of MSW management. The urban community of Yaoundé also needs to maintain its support of MSW management and promote the sustainability of NGOs and CBOs operating in underserved areas not yet covered by adequate infrastructures. A major opportunity for implementation of such waste policy is the heavily indebted poor countries (HIPC) program dedicated to urban planning and good governance.     

Model Calculations of Total Maximum Daily Loads of Mercury for Drainage Lakes1

Abstract: The Watershed Analysis Risk Management Framework watershed model was enhanced to simulate the transport and fate of mercury and to calculate the fish mercury concentrations (FMC) attained by fish through the food web. The model was applied to Western Lake Superior Basin of Minnesota, which has many peat lands and lakes. Topographic, land use, and soil data were used to set up the model. Meteorology and precipitation chemistry data from nearby monitoring stations were compiled to drive the model. Simulated flow and mercury concentrations for several stream stations were comparable to available data. The model was used to perform mercury total maximum daily load calculations for two contrasting drainage lakes (Wild Rice Lake and Whiteface Reservoir). The model results for wet deposition, dry deposition, evasion, watershed yield, and soil sequestration of mercury were comparable with available actual data. The model predicted lake ice cover from November to April and weak stratification in summer, typical of shallow lakes in cold regions. The simulated sulfate decrease and methylmercury increase near the lake bottom in late summer are caused by sulfate reduction and mercury methylation that occur in the surficial sediment. Simulated FMC were within the range of observed values and the R² of correlation between the simulated and observed FMC was 0.77. Under the 1989‐2004 base condition, the average simulated FMC of four‐year‐old walleye was 0.31 μg/g for Whiteface Reservoir and 0.15 μg/g for Wild Rice Lake. The FMC criterion in Minnesota is 0.2 μg/g. Wild Rice Lake already meets this criterion without any load reduction. The model showed that a 65% reduction in atmospheric mercury deposition will not, by itself, allow Whiteface Reservoir to meet the criterion in 15 years. Additional best management practices will be needed to reduce 50% of the watershed input.     

Degradation of atrazine,metolachlor, and pendimethalin in pesticide‐contaminated soils: Effects of aged residues on soil respiration and plant survival

Abstract

This study was conducted to determine the effects of pesticide mixtures on degradation patterns of parent compounds as well as effects on soil microbial respiration. Bioavailability of residues to sensitive plant species was also determined. Soil for this study was obtained from a pesticide‐contaminated area within an agrochemical dealer site. Degradation patterns were not affected by the presence or absence of other herbicides in this study. Atrazine concentrations were significantly lower at 21 through 160 days aging time compared to day 0 concentrations. Metolachlor and pendimethalin concentrations were not significantly different over time and remained high throughout the study. Microbial respiration was suppressed in treated soils from day 21 to day 160. Soybean and canola were the most successful plant species in the germination and survival tests. Generally, with increased aging of pesticides in soil, germination time decreased. Survival time of plants increased over time for some treatments indicating possible decreased bioavailability of pesticide residues. In some cases, survival time decreased at the longer 160‐day aging period, possibly indicating a change in bioavailability, perhaps as the result of formation of more bioavailable and phytotoxic metabolites. No interactive effects were noted for mixtures of pesticides compared to individually applied pesticides in terms of degradation of the parent compound or on seed germination, plant survival, or microbial respiration.     

Characterization of municipal waste in Kampala,Uganda

In Kampala, Uganda, about 28,000 tons of waste is collected and delivered to a landfill every month. Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) records show that this represents approximately 40% of the waste generated in the city. The remaining uncollected waste is normally dumped in unauthorized sites, causing health and environmental problems. However, the organic fraction of domestic waste can provide an opportunity to improve livelihoods and incomes through fertilizer and energy production. This study characterized the municipal waste generated in Kampala and delivered to Kiteezi landfill between July 2011 and June 2012, that is, covering the dry and wet months. On each sampling day, waste was randomly selected from five trucks, sorted and weighed into different physical fractions. Samples of the organic waste from each truck were analyzed for total solids, major nutrients, and energy content. During the wet months, the waste consisted of 88.5% organics, 3.8% soft plastics, 2.8% hard plastics, 2.2% paper, 0.9% glass, 0.7% textiles and leather, 0.2% metals, and 1.0% others. During the dry months, the waste consisted of 94.8% organics, 2.4% soft plastics, 1.0% hard plastics, 0.7% papers, 0.3% glass, 0.3% textile and leather, 0.1% metals, and 0.3% others. The organic waste on average had a moisture content of 71.1% and contained 1.89% nitrogen, 0.27% phosphorus, and 1.95% potassium. The waste had an average gross energy content of 17.3 MJ/kg. It was concluded that the organic waste generated can be a suitable source of some plant nutrients that are useful especially in urban agriculture.

Implications:?The result of the waste characterization in Kampala was found to be significantly different from that obtained for other Sub-Saharan African (SSA) cities, showing that studies assuming average values for the waste fractions are likely to result in erroneous results. Furthermore, no reduction in organic fraction of the waste was noticed when compared with a study done two decades ago in spite of greatly improved economic status of Kampala city, a finding that is not in agreement with several other similar studies done for other SSA cities.     

Tactile learning in resin foraging honeybees

Honeybees harvest and use plant resins in a mixture called propolis to seal cracks and smooth surfaces in the nest architecture. Resins in the nest may be important in maintaining a healthy colony due to their antimicrobial properties. This study had two main objectives: (1) Provide initial insight on the learning capabilities of resin foraging honeybees; (2) analyze the sensitivity of resin foraging honeybees to tactile stimuli to elucidate its possible role as a mechanism behind resin foraging. The first objective provides insight into the phenotype of these bees as compared to other forager types, while the second creates a starting point for further work on behavioral mechanisms of resin foraging. Using tactile proboscis extension response conditioning, we found that resin foragers learned to associate two different tactile stimuli, the presence of a gap between two plates and a rough sandpaper surface, with a sucrose reward significantly better than pollen foragers. The results of differential tactile conditioning exhibited no significant difference in the ability of resin foragers to discriminate between smooth and rough surfaces as compared to pollen foragers. We also determined that the sucrose response thresholds (SRTs) of returning resin foragers were lower compared to returning pollen foragers, but both resin foragers and pollen foragers learned a floral odor equally well. This is the first study to examine SRTs and conditioning to tactile and olfactory stimuli with resin foraging honeybees. The results provide new information and identify areas for future research on resin collectors, an understudied foraging phenotype.     

Stress-related ecophysiology of members of the genus Rhodanobacter isolated from a mixed waste contaminated subsurface

• Rhodanobacter spp. are dominant in acidic, high nitrate and metal contaminated sites. • Dominance of Rhodanobacter is likely due to tolerance to low pH and heavy metals. • High organic content increases stress tolerance capacity. • Longer incubation time is critical for accurate assessment of MIC (various stresses). This work examines the physiologic basis of stress tolerance in bacterial strains of the genus Rhodanobacter that dominate in the acidic and highly metal contaminated near-source subsurface zone of the Oak Ridge Integrated Field Research Challenge (ORIFRC) site. Tolerance of R. denitrificans to levels of different stresses were studied in synthetic groundwater medium and R2A broth. Two strains of R. denitrificans, strains 2APBS1^T and 116-2, tolerate low to circumneutral pH (4–8), high Uranium (1 mmol/L), elevated levels of nitrate (400 mmol/L) and high NaCl (2.5%). A combination of physiologic traits, such as growth at low pH, increased growth in the presence of high organics concentration, and tolerance of high concentrations of nitrate, NaCl and heavy metals is likely responsible for dominance of Rhodanobacter at the ORIFRC site. Furthermore, extended incubation times and use of low carbon media, better approximating site groundwater conditions, are critical for accurate determination of stress responses. This study expands knowledge of the ecophysiology of bacteria from the genus Rhodanobacter and identifies methodological approaches necessary for acquiring accurate tolerance data.     

The anxious vole: the impact of group and gender on collective behavior under life-threat

Social animals behave collectively in order to maintain a cohesive group. This collective behavior is often led by a few individuals of specific gender, social rank, or spatial physical location in the group (i.e., perimeter or front). We examined how individual social voles (Microtus socialis) in same-gender compared with mixed-gender groups respond to an owl attack. We found that anxiety level, as measured by the time that each individual spent in less-sheltered sectors (open arms of elevated plus-maze and center of open arena), was affected by both the social context and the gender of the tested individuals. While both female and male voles generally reduced their activity in the open following owl attack, males in mixed-gender groups were exceptional in dichotomizing into those that spent a short period and those that spent a long period in the open arms of the plus-maze. Based on the similar responses of the same-gender groups, we suggest that anxiety is contagious, and based on the lower anxiety level of the mixed-gender groups, we suggest that natural groups that comprise both males and females are better able to cope with life-threat compared with same-gender groups. Finally, we suggest that the differential responses of males in the mixed-gender groups were due to a few males that displayed a low level of anxiety. These males were probably individuals of high social rank, and their response reflects their natural protective role, as previously described in social voles.