Simultaneous determination of iprodione,procymidone, and chlorflurenol in lake water and wastewater matrices by GC-MS after multivariate optimization of binary dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction

This study reports the optimization of a binary dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction method for the determination of iprodione, procymidone, and chlorflurenol by gas chromatography mass spectrometry. The study was aimed at using two extraction solvents to increase the extraction efficiency of all analytes. The binary solvents recorded results higher than the mono-solvents. After examining the effects of main experimental parameters and their interactions by analysis of variance, 200 μL of binary mixture (dichloromethane and 1,2-dichloroethane), 2.5 mL of ethanol, and 15 s vortex were obtained as optimum parameters. The detection and quantification limits calculated for the analytes were found to be between 0.30–1.6 and 1.0–5.3 ng/mL, respectively. Enhancement in detection power calculated as a ratio of the binary extraction detection limit to the detection limit of direct GC-MS analysis was 105-, 214-, and 233-fold for chlorflurenol, iprodione, and procymidone, respectively. In order to check the accuracy of the developed method, recovery study was performed. Water sampled from a lake and two wastewater samples from treatment facilities were spiked at two concentrations, and the percent recovery calculated for the samples ranged between 87 and 116%. These results confirmed the suitability of the method to real samples for accurate determination of the analytes at trace levels.     

Odor dispersion modeling with CALPUFF: Case study of a waste and residue treatment incineration and utilization plant in Kocaeli,Turkey

This study addresses the odor problem at a waste and residue treatment incineration and utilization plant located within the borders the Alikahya district of the Kocaeli province in Turkey. In the first stage of the study, odor measurements were made at designated sampling points, while in the second stage, odor concentrations were determined at the receptor points through dispersion modelling using a USEPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency) certified long-range (>50 km) CALPUFF lagrangian puff model. In the final stage, an analysis of the predicted and observed values was carried out using such statistical methods as geometric mean bias (MG), geometric variance (VG) and fractions of predictions within a factor of two observations (FAC2).

During the modelling study, the highest one-hour concentration level was found to be 1868.10 OU (Odor Units), and the 24-hour concentration level was found to be 1316 OU, representing a decrease of approximately 30 percent. According to the measurement made, the maximum concentration value was 2455 OU. Odor measurements were carried out at 13 points within the area in order to assess the prediction results. When the results were assessed using the MG, VG and FAC2 statistical methods, it was observed that an acceptable model performance was not achieved for the whole sampling point. When the reason for this was investigated, it was concluded that the observed values were lower than the predicted values due to the fact on the measurement days, the odor was dispersed by wind. It was further concluded that the observed values were higher than the predicted values as a result of odors emitted by other plants in the area. When the measurements in residential areas were examined to identify the effect of the odors, it was determined that although the primary density of settlement is to the southwest of the plant, it was not this area that was affected most, but rather the area to the northeast, where there is a lower settlement density.     

Chemical Characteristics of Rain Water at an Urban Site of South Western Turkey

In this study, chemical composition of the rain water in Mugla was investigated from February to April 2002. Rain water samples were obtained from Mugla, a small city in south western Turkey. The Yatagan Power Plant is located 30 km northwest of Mugla city. The values of pH and the concentrations of major ions (Ca²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, SO₄ ²⁻, NO₃ ⁻, NH₄ ⁺) in the rainwater samples were analyzed. The pH varied from 4.5 to 7.7 with an average of 6.9 which was in alkaline range considering 5.6 as the neutral pH of cloud water with atmospheric CO₂ equilibrium. In the total 30 rain events, only two events were observed in acidic range (< 5.6) which occurred after continuous rains. The equivalent concentration of components followed the order: Ca²⁺ > SO₄ ²⁻ > NH₄ ⁺ > NO₃ ⁻ > Na⁺ > K⁺ > H⁺. The volume-weighted mean (VWM) of the measured ionic sum is 371.62 μeq/l. The ratio of between sum cations and sum anions (∑cations /∑ anions) is 1.52 μeq/l. The alkaline components (Ca²⁺, Na⁺, K⁺) contribute 52%, NH₄ ⁺ 8%, whereas, the contribution from the acidic components is relatively small (40%). The low concentrations of H⁺ found in rainwater samples from Mugla suggest that an important portion of H₂SO₄ and HNO₃ have been neutralized by alkaline particles in the atmosphere. The dust-rich local and surrounding limestone environment might have caused the high concentration of Ca²⁺ in Mugla area. The relatively high concentration of NH₄ ⁺ observed at Mugla is suspected to be due to surrounding agricultural. The results obtained in this study are compared with those other studies conducted at various places in the world.     

Heavy metals in Yeniçağa Lake and its potential sources: soil,water, sediment,and plankton

The distribution and accumulation of heavy metals (Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Mo, Cd, Sn, Ba, Pb) in the water, sediments, plankton of Yeniça?a Lake, and its potential sources (creeks, sewage, artesian well, soil) were investigated during 1-year study period as monthly or seasonally. Element analyses were performed by ICP–MS. Results showed that the trace and toxic elements (Al, As, Mn, Pb, Fe) concentration in lake water and/or its feeding sources were above the recommended water standards (WHO, EC, EPA, TS-266). It was found that the maximum accumulation of the heavy metals iron, aluminum, manganese, zinc, and barium in the sediment of Yeniça?a Lake. The accumulation order of trace metals were Fe > Al > Mn > Zn > Ba > Ni > Cr > As > Cu > Pb > Co > Mo > Sn > Cd in the lake, creeks sediment, and soil samples. The similar results suggest that the accumulation of heavy metals in the sediment is a natural process. Metals accumulated in the lake are naturally mixed from the soil. However, the presence of heavy metals in the analysis of artesian well water and sewage reveals that the transportation occurs also from the groundwater to the lake. The results obtained in plankton in Yeniça?a Lake showed that aluminum, iron, manganese, zinc, and barium were most accumulated elements in the plankton. The lower averages of lead prevalent in the water and sediment during some months were seen to have a significant mean accumulation in the plankton.     

Analysing land cover changes for understanding of forest dynamics using temporal forest management plans

This study analyses forest dynamics and land use/land cover change over a 43-year period using spatial-stand-type maps of temporal forest management plans of Karaisal? Forest Enterprise in the Eastern Mediterranean Region of Turkey. Stand parameters (tree species, crown closures and developmental stages) of the dynamics and changes caused by natural or artificial intervention were introduced and mapped in a Geographic Information System (GIS) and subjected to fragmentation analysis using FRAGSTATS. The Karaisal? Forest Enterprise was first planned in 1969 and then the study area was planned under the Mediterranean Forest Use project in 1991 and five-term forest management plans were made. In this study, we analysed only four periods (excluding 1982 revision plans): 1969, 1991, 2002 and 2012. Between 1969 and 2012, overall changes included a net increase of 3,026 ha in forested areas. Cumulative forest improvement accounted for 2.12 % and the annual rate of total forest improvement averaged 0.08 %. In addition, productive forest areas increased from 36,174 to 70,205 ha between 1969 and 2012. This translates into an average annual productive forest improvement rate of 1.54 %. At the same time, fully covered forest areas with crown closure of “3” (>70 %) increased about 21,321 ha, and young forest areas in developmental stage of “a” (diameter at breast height (dbh)?<?8 cm) increased from 716 to 13,305 ha over the 43-year study period. Overall changes show that productive and fully covered forest areas have increased egregiously with a focus on regenerated and young developmental stages. A spatial analysis of metrics over the 43-year study period indicated a more fragmented landscape resulting in a susceptible forest to harsh disturbances.     

Assessment of surface water quality of the Ceyhan River basin, Turkey

In this study, surface water quality of the Ceyhan River basin were assessed and examined with 13 physico-chemical parameters in 31 stations in 3 months during the period of 2005. Multivariate statistical techniques were applied to identify characteristics of the water quality in the studied stations. Nutrients, Cl^??? and Na^?+? affected mostly to the stations of Erkenez 2, S?r 2, and S?r 3 in the ordination diagram of correspondence analysis. Three factors were extracted by principal component analysis, which explains 79.14% of the total variation. The first factor (PC1) captures variables of EC, DO, NO $_{2}^{\; -}$ , PO $_{4}^{\; \equiv }$ , Cl^???, SO $_{4}^{\; =}$ , Na^?+?, and Ca^?+?+?. The second factor (PC2) is significantly related to pH, NH $_{3}^{\; -}$ , and Mg^?+?+?, while water temperature (T) and NO $_{3}^{\; -}$ accounted for the greatest loading for factor 3 (PC3). The stations were divided into three groups for PC1, two groups for PC2, and three groups for PC3 by hierarchical cluster analysis. The stations in the vicinity of cities presented low dissolved oxygen and high concentration of physico-chemical parameter levels. The stations of Erkenez 2, S?r 2, S?r 3, and Aksu 4 located near the city of Kahramanmara? were characterized by an extremely high pollution due to discharge of wastewater from industry and domestic. P?narba?? and Elbistan stations were also influenced by household wastewater of the city of Elbistan. According to criteria of Turkish Water Pollution Control Regulation, Erkenez 2, S?r 2, and S?r 3 stations have high polluted water. This study suggests that it is urgent to control point pollutions, and all wastewater should be purified before discharge to the Ceyhan River basin.     

Determination of potential allergenic fungal flora and its clinical reflection in suburban elementary schools in Izmir

In this research, in order to determine mean fungus counts, indoor and outdoor air samples were taken in five elementary school buildings located in the city center of Seferihisar, Izmir (45 km from Izmir) within a 1-year period between March and April 2004, and between January and February 2005 representing similar climatic characteristics. Five samples, three from three classes where 5–8, 10–12, and 12–15 age group students attended, one from the corridors, and one from outside the buildings in all the schools, were taken for each period. Within the period of the study, in indoor and outdoor air samples, 7,122 microfungus colonies were counted. Sixty-four species were identified that belong to 17 genera as a result of the identification of isolates obtained. Skin prick tests were applied to 55 out of a total of 117 teachers by the clinicians. According to these test results, 24 teachers were sensitive to at least one agent. Results revealed that, in terms of mold counts, the difference between the schools and the difference between the times (periods) were statistically significant (p?< 0.05).     

Monitoring forest structure at landscape level: a case study of Scots pine forest in NE Turkey

This study aims to investigate the change in spatial-temporal configuration of secondary forest succession and generate measurements for monitoring the changes in structural plant diversity in Yaln?zçam Scots pine forest in NE Turkey from 1972 to 2005. The successional stages were mapped using the combination of Geographic Information System (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), aerial photos and high resolution satellite images (IKONOS). Forest structure and its relationship with structural plant diversity along with its changes over time were characterized using FRAGSTATS. In terms of spatial configuration of seral stages, the total number of fragments increased from 572 to 735, and mean size of patch (MPS) decreased from 154.97 ha to 120.60 ha over 33 years. The situation resulted in forestation serving appropriate conditions for plant diversity in the area. As an overall change in study area, there was a net increase of 1823.3 ha forest during the period with an average annual forestation rate of 55.25 ha year^?1(0.4% per year). In conclusion, the study revealed that stand type maps of forest management plans in Turkey provide a great chance to monitor the changes in structural plant diversity over time. The study further contributes to the development of a framework for effective integration of biodiversity conservation into Multiple Use Forest Management (MUFM) plans using the successional stages as a critical mechanism.     

Influence of urban form on landscape pattern and connectivity in metropolitan regions: a comparative case study of Phoenix,AZ, USA,and Izmir,Turkey

Although ecological connectivity conservation in urban areas has recently been recognized as an important issue, less is known about its relationship to urban form and landscape pattern. This study investigates how urban morphology influences regional ecosystem pattern and landscape connectivity. Two metropolitan landscapes, Phoenix, AZ, USA, and Izmir, Turkey, were compared, both of which are fast-growing regions in their national context. A wide range of variables were considered for identifying natural and urban properties. The natural characteristics include typology of urban ecosystems, urban to natural cover ratio, dominant habitat type, urban biodiversity, landscape context, and connectivity conservation efforts. Urban parameters examine urban form, urban extent, urban cover proportion, growth rate, populations, urban gradient, major drivers of urbanization, urban density, and mode/approach of urban development. Twelve landscape metrics were measured and compared across the natural patches. Results show that there is little difference in landscape connectivity in the rural zones of Phoenix and Izmir, although Phoenix has slightly higher connectivity values. The connectivity variance in urbanized areas, however, is significantly dependent on the region. For example, Phoenix urban zones have substantially lower connectivity than either urban or suburban zones in Izmir. Findings demonstrate that small and compact urban settlements with more dense populations are more likely to conserve landscape connectivity compared to multiple-concentric but amalgamated urban form spreading all over the landscape (aka urban sprawl).