Assessment of fates of estrogens in wastewater and sludge from various types of wastewater treatment plants

We measured five estrogens in the wastewater samples from the municipal wastewater treatment plants (M-WWTPs), livestock wastewater treatment plants (L-WWTPs), hospital WWTPs (H-WWTPs) and pharmaceutical manufacture WWTPs (P-WWTPs) in Korea. The L-WWTPs showed the highest total concentration (0.195-10.4 μg L⁻¹) of estrogens in the influents, followed by the M-WWTPs (0.028-1.15 μg L⁻¹), H-WWTPs (0.068-0.130 μg L⁻¹) and P-WWTPs (0.015-0.070 μg L⁻¹). Like the influents, the L-WWTPs (0.003-0.729 μg L⁻¹) and the M-WWTPs (0.001-0.299 μg L⁻¹) also showed higher total concentration of estrogens in the effluents than the H-WWTPs (0.002-0.021 μg L⁻¹) and P-WWTPs (0.011 μg L⁻¹ in one sample). The L-WWTPs (37.5-543 μg kg⁻¹, dry weight) showed higher total concentrations in sludge than the M-WWTPs (3.16-444 μg kg⁻¹, dry weight) like the wastewater. The distribution of estrogens in the WWTPs may be affected by their metabolism in the human body, their transition through biological treatment processes, and their usage for livestock growth. Unlike the concentration results, the daily loads of estrogens from the M-WWTPs were the highest, which is related to the high capacities of WWTPs.     

Spatial distribution of organochlorine contaminants in soil, sediment, and fish in Bikini and Enewetak Atolls of the Marshall Islands, Pacific Ocean

Several nuclear tests were performed at Enewetak and Bikini Atolls in the Marshall Islands between 1946 and 1958. The events at Bikini Atoll involved several ships that were tested for durability during nuclear explosions, and 24 vessels now rest on the bottom of the Bikini lagoon. Nine soil samples were collected from different areas on the two islands of the atoll, and eighteen sediment, nine fish, and one lobster were collected in the vicinity of the sunken ships. Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polychlorinated terphenyls (PCTs) in these samples were analyzed using gas chromatography/ion trap mass spectrometry (GC/ITMS). The average recoveries ranged from 78% to 104% for the different PCB congeners. The limits of detection (LOD) for PCBs, PCTs, DDE, DDT, and dieldrin ranged 10-50 pg g⁻¹. Some fish from Enewetak contained PCBs at a concentration range of 37-137 ng g⁻¹, dry weight (dw), and most of the soils from Enewetak showed evidence of PCBs (22-392 ng g⁻¹ dw). Most of the Bikini lagoon sediment samples contained PCBs, and the highest was the one collected from around the Saratoga, an aircraft carrier (1555 ng g⁻¹ dw). Some of the fish samples, most of the soil samples, and only one of the sediment samples contained 2,2-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethylene (DDE) and PCBs. In addition to PCBs, the soils from Enewetak Atoll contained PCTs. PCTs were not detected in the sediment samples from Bikini Atoll. The results suggest local pollution sources of PCBs, PCTs, and OCPs.     

Assessing seasonal and spatial trends of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Indian agricultural regions using PUF disk passive air samplers

The first survey of persistent organic pollutant (POP) concentrations in air across several Indian agricultural regions was conducted in 2006-2007. Passive samplers comprising polyurethane foam (PUF) disks were deployed on a quarterly basis at seven stations in agricultural regions, one urban site and one background site. The project was conducted as a sub-project of the Global Atmospheric Passive Sampling (GAPS) Network. In addition to revealing new information on air concentrations of several organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), the study has demonstrated the feasibility of conducting regional-scale monitoring for POPs in India using PUF disk samplers. The following analytes were detected with relatively high concentrations in air (mean for 2006 and 2007, pg/m³): α- and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH) (292 and 812, respectively); endosulfan I and II (2770 and 902, respectively); p,p′-DDE and p,p′-DDT (247 and 931, respectively); and for the sum of 48 PCBs, 12,100 (including a site with extremely high air concentrations in 2007) and 972 (when excluding data for this site).     

Stabilization and solidification of elemental mercury for safe disposal and/or long-term storage

A simple and highly effective stabilization/solidification (S/S) technology of elemental mercury using only sulfur with paraffin is introduced. First, elemental mercury is mixed with an excess of sulfur powder and heated to 60 degrees C for 30 min until elemental mercury is converted into mercuric sulfide (HgS black, metacinnabar) (Step 1). Then, metacinnabar with additional sulfur is poured into liquid paraffin (Step 2). Finally, the mixture is melted at 140 degrees C and settles to the bottom of the vessel where it cools and solidifies under the layer of liquid paraffin (Step 3). The proposed S/S method with sodium sulfide nonahydrate (Na2S x 9H2O) as an additive is also tested for comparison. The average toxicity characteristic leaching procedure test values are 6.72 microg/L (no additive) and 3.18 microg/L (with additive). Theses concentrations are well below the Universal Treatment Standard (25 microg/L). Effective diffusion coefficient evaluated from accelerated leach test and average headspace concentration of Hg vapor after 18 hr are 3.62 x 10(-15) cm2/sec, 0.55 mg/m3 (no additive) and 5.86 x 10(-13) cm2/sec, 0.25 mg/m3 (with additive).     

Heterogeneous mercury reaction chemistry on activated carbon

Experimental and theory-based investigations have been carried out on the oxidation and adsorption mechanism of mercury (Hg) on brominated activated carbon (AC). Air containing parts per billion concentrations of Hg was passed over a packed-bed reactor with varying sorbent materials at 140 and 30 degrees C. Through X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy surface characterization studies it was found that Hg adsorption is primarily associated with bromine (Br) on the surface, but that it may be possible for surface-bound oxygen (O) to play a role in determining the stability of adsorbed Hg. In addition to surface characterization experiments, the interaction of Hg with brominated AC was studied using plane-wave density functional theory. Various configurations of hydrogen, O, Br, and Hg on the zigzag edge sites of graphene were investigated, and although Hg-Br complexes were found to be stable on the surface, the most stable configurations found were those with Hg adjacent to O. The Hg-carbon (C) bond length ranged from 2.26 to 2.34 A and is approximately 0.1 A shorter when O is a nearest-neighbor atom rather than a next-nearest neighbor, resulting in increased stability of the given configuration and overall tighter Hg-C binding. Through a density of states analysis, Hg was found to gain electron density in the six p-states after adsorption and was found to donate electron density from the five s-states, thereby leading to an oxidized surface-bound Hg complex.     

A study on the reaction characteristics of vanadium-impregnated natural manganese oxide in ammonia selective catalytic reduction

This study investigated the effect of adding vanadium (V) to natural manganese oxide (NMO) in ammonia (NH3) selective catalytic reduction (SCR). The addition of V to NMO decreased the catalytic activity at low temperatures by blocking the active site. However, the enhancement of catalytic activity was achieved by controlling NH3 oxidation at high temperatures. From the NH3 temperature programmed desorption and oxygen on/off test, it was confirmed that the amount of Lewis acid site and active lattice oxygen of the catalyst affects the catalytic performance at low temperature.     

Preparation of activated carbons from raw and biotreated agricultural residues for removal of volatile organic compounds

Activated carbons with diverse physical and chemical properties were produced from four agriculture residues, including raw barley husk, biotreated barley husk, rice husk, and pistachio shell. Results showed that with adequate steam activation (30-90 min, 50% H2O(g),/50% N2), activated carbons with surface areas between 360 and 950 m2 g(-1) were developed. Further increases in the activation time destroyed the pore structure of activated carbons, which resulted in a decrease in the surface area and pore volume. Biotreated agricultural residues were found to be suitable precursors for producing mesoporous activated carbons. The oxygen content of activated carbons increased with increasing activation time. Results from X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy examination further suggested that H2O molecules react with the carbon surface, enhancing the deconvoluted peak area of carbonyl and carboxyl groups. Equilibrium adsorption of toluene indicated that the adsorption capacities increased with an increase in the inlet toluene concentration and a decrease in temperature. The adsorption isotherms were successfully fitted with Freundlich, Langmuir, and Dubinin-Radushkevich equations. Activated carbons derived from agricultural residues appear to be more applicable to adsorb volatile organic compounds at a low concentration and high-temperature environment.     

Development of a country-specific CO2 emission factor for domestic anthracite in Korea, 2007�C2009

Introduction

Korea has been making efforts to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, including a voluntary commitment to the target of a 30% reduction, based on business-as-usual of the total GHG emission volume, by 2020; 2006 IPCC Guidelines provided default values, applying country-specific emission factors was recommended when estimating national greenhouse gas emissions.

Results and discussion

This study focused on anthracite produced in Korea in order to provide basic data for developing country-specific emission factor. This study has estimated CO₂ emission factors to use worksheet of which five steps consisted according to the fuel analysis method.

Conclusion

As a result, the average of net colorific value for 3 years (2007??2009) was 4,519 kcal/kg, and the CO₂ emission factor was calculated to be 111,446 kg/TJ, which is about 11.8% lower than the 2006 IPCC guidelines default value, and about 7.9% higher than the US EPA emission factor.     

Molecular cloning and expression of novel metallothionein (MT) gene in the polychaete Perinereis nuntia exposed to metals

To report a novel metallothionein (MT) gene and evaluate its potency as a biomarker, we clone this MT gene and measured the expression levels in the metal-exposed polychaete Perinereis nuntia. Accumulated metal contents and metallothionein-like proteins (MTLPs), which have been recognized as potential biomarkers, were compared with the relative mRNA expressions of the MT gene of P. nuntia (Pn-MT). In addition, the metal-binding affinity was estimated by recombinant Pn-MT protein. Pn-MT having high cysteine residues with three metal response elements in the promoter region closely clusters with those of other invertebrates. The accumulation patterns of metals were dependent on the exposure times in lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and copper (Cu) exposure. Particularly, both MTLP levels and relative mRNA expressions of MT were increased with accumulated metal contents and exposure time in P. nuntia exposed to Pb and Cd. There was no significant modulation of the Pn-MT gene in polychaetes exposed to Zn and As. However, the metal-binding ability of the recombinant Pn-MT protein provides a clear evidence for a high affinity of MT to several metal elements. These results suggest that Pn-MT would play an important role in the detoxification and/or sequestration of specific metals (e.g., Pb and Cd) in P. nuntia and have potential as a molecular biomarker in the monitoring of the marine environment using a polychaete.     

Indoor air quality differences between urban and rural preschools in Korea

Background, aims, and scope

Preschool indoor air quality (IAQ) is believed to be different from elementary school or higher school IAQ and preschool is the first place for social activity. Younger children are more susceptible than higher-grade children and spend more time indoors. The purpose of this study was to compare the indoor air quality by investigating the concentrations of airborne particulates and gaseous materials at preschools in urban and rural locations in Korea.

Methods

We investigated the concentrations of airborne particulates and gaseous materials in 71 classrooms at 17 Korean preschools. For comparison, outdoor air was sampled simultaneously with indoor air samples. Airborne concentrations of total suspended particulates, respirable particulates, lead, asbestos, total volatile organic compounds and components, formaldehyde, and CO₂ were measured with National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and/or Environmental Protection Agency analytical methods.

Results

The concentration profiles of the investigated pollutants in indoor and urban settings were higher than those in outdoor and rural areas, respectively. The ratios of indoor/outdoor concentrations (I/O) of particulates and gaseous pollutants were characterized in urban and rural preschools. Total dust concentration was highest in urban indoor settings followed by urban outdoor, rural indoor, and rural outdoor locations with an I/O ratio of 1.37 in urban and 1.35 in rural areas. Although I/O ratios of lead were close to 1, lead concentrations were much higher in urban than in rural areas. The I/O ratio of total VOCs was 2.29 in urban and 2.52 in rural areas, with the highest level in urban indoor settings. The I/O ratio of formaldehyde concentrations was higher in rural than in urban areas because the outdoor rural level was much lower than the urban concentration. Since an I/O ratio higher than 1 implies the presence of indoor sources, we concluded that there are many indoor sources in preschools.

Conclusions

We confirmed that pollutants in indoor and urban settings were higher than those in outdoor and rural areas, respectively. Preschool children are expected to spend more time inside preschool facilities and therefore to be more exposed to pollutants. As far as we know, preschool IAQ is different from elementary school or higher school IAQ. Also, they are more vulnerable than higher-grade children. We found that the indoor and urban concentration profiles of the studied pollutants in preschools were higher than those in outdoor and rural areas. We believe that our findings may be useful for understanding the potential health effects of exposure and intervention studies in preschools.