The effect of a “permanent” clock-shift on the orientation of experienced homing pigeons

Summary A group of experienced homing pigeons vas subjected to a 6 h slow shift of their internal clock and kept under these conditions for more than 2 months. During the overlap time between the natural and artificial photoperiods they were released for training flights to familiarize them with an area while living in a permanent shift.Tested outside the permanent shift training range, the experimentals always deviated about 30° clockwise from the mean of their controls, markedly less than in a regular 6 h slow shift. Inside the permanent shift training range, however, they oriented like the controls (Fig. 2). When their internal clock was returned to normal, the birds showed a larger counterclockwise deflection on their first flight, which was roughly comparable to the effect of a regular 6 h fast shift (Fig. 3). On later flights after normalization, this large shift was no longer found; instead we observed a roughly 30° counterclockwise deflection when they were released inside the permanent shift training range in the morning. This deflection did not seem to occur in the afternoon or outside the permanent shift training range (Figs. 4, 5), and it disappeared when the birds were repeatedly released from the same site (Fig. 6).The occurrence or non-occurrence of the deflection was independent of the duration of the shift or the time passed after normalization; it seemed to depend solely on whether the birds had become familiar with a given site in the situation of the permanent shift. This argues against an effect based on the sun compass. We tend to assume that the still unknown navigational map is involved. In this case, however, as the deflection is independent of the home direction and the type of release site bias, the factors in question would act very differently from the gradients on which the traditional concepts of the navigational map are based. The processes establishing and updating the map and their possible differences are discussed.Died on August 17, 1980     

Fighting,assessment, and frequency alteration in Blanchard's cricket frog

Summary This study examines the use of dominant frequency for assessment of fighting ability in Blanchard's cricket frog Acris crepitans blanchardi. Like most anurans, the dominant frequency of the call is negatively correlated with size. However, unlike many anurans, dominant frequency varies within individual males, providing a less reliable signal of size. Wrestling contests between male cricket frogs were differentially won by larger males. I thus tested the hypothesis that males use dominant frequency for assessment of an opponent's fighting ability. Males retreated from, or became satellites of, broadcasts of synthetic low frequency calls, simulating the calls of a large male. In contrast, males attacked broadcasts of synthetic high frequency calls, simulating the calls of a small male. The dominant frequency of the call therefore appears to contain information about size which males use to assess the fighting ability of opponents, despite the lower degree of reliability resulting from individual variation in the signal. Individual variation in dominant frequency arises partially as a consequence of active alteration of the signal in response to social competition. Males differentially lowered their dominant frequencies in response to lower frequency broadcasts, thus in response to larger opponents. Furthermore, the higher a male's dominant frequency relative to that of an opponent, the greater was the decrease in dominant frequency. These results suggest that smaller males may conditionally lower their dominant frequencies in order to sound larger to larger opponents, thereby inflating their apparent fighting ability. Two alternative hypotheses are discussed.     

Sexual selection on alleles that determine body size in the swordtail Xiphophorus nigrensis

Summary In a natural population, we document changes in the frequencies of alleles influencing body size and size-correlated alternative male reproductive tactics, and we examine the possible role of sexual selection in producing these changes. Male swordtails (Xiphophorus nigrensis, Rio Choy) exhibit three body size classes (small, intermediate, and large) that primarily derive from allelic variation (s, I, L) at the Y-linked pituitary (P) locus. Some XX individuals are male. They are small and can be fathered either by XX or XY males. We compared the frequencies of Y-linked P alleles across two generations in a natural population. There was a significant decrease in the Y-s genotype relative to Y-I and Y-L genotypes. Laboratory experiments suggest that the disadvantage of Y-s resulted, at least in part, from female preference for larger courting males relative to small chasing males. All larger courting males are of the Y-I or Y-L genotypes. Although the frequency of Y-linked P alleles changed across generations, there was no change in the distribution of male body size classes. The stability of the phenotypic distribution across generations, despite changes in P allele frequencies, was maintained by the production of small XX sons by Y-I and Y-L males. Offprint requests to: M.J. Ryan     

Do Midas cichlids win through prowess or daring? It depends

Summary Individual Midas cichlids (Cichlasoma citrinellum) show persistent differences in aggressive behavior toward dummy fish. The starting question was whether the level of such behavior can be used to predict the winner of a fight. In the first (long-term) experiment two fish were matched for size, color, and sex. After 24 h the opaque barrier separating the 2 fish was removed; they immediately behaved aggressively. Scores for aggression toward dummies did not predict the winners, nor did taking the initiative in escalation. But weight did foretell the winners, who averaged only 2% heavier than their opponents. The conventional display phase of such fights was brief (20% of total duration), and escalation was rapid. Both winners and losers sustained damage, but losers accumulated damage faster than winners. In the subsequent (short-term) experiment the fish were separated only 1–2 h. Now aggression scores predicted winners, and winners were the fish who escalated. Weight of fish had no effect. The conventional phase was relatively much longer, about half the length of the fight. Losers accumulated damage at the same rate as the losers in the long-term experiment, but the fights were shorter; winners suffered little damage. The fish had difficulty assessing one another. Fighting prowess was remarkably uniform when weight was factored out. Daring to escalate, in contrast, varied among individuals and correlated with aggression scores. Prowess (=weight) determined the outcome in the long-term experiment, which may find its parallel in nature in intraterritorial disputes. Daring to escalate determined the winner in the short-term experiment; this may be comparable to establishing a territory in nature.Prowess probably results from strong directional selection because it has low costs and high benefits. In contrast, daring is subject to bi-directional selection because both costs and benefits are high. Resource holding potential is conventionally viewed as deriving from prowess of self and opponent and value of resource; to that one must add the individual's inherent aggressiveness.     

Species-specific differences in pure tonal whistle vocalizations of five western North Atlantic dolphin species

Summary Pure tonal whistle vocalizations from five species of dolphins found in the western North Atlantic had consistent, species-specific characteristics. The degree of differences between species, as based on the results of multivariate discriminant analysis (Fig. 2), correlated with the taxonomic and zoogeographic relations of the five dolphin species. Congeneric species had more similar vocalizations than species of different genera. Differences between sympatric species were greater than differences between allopatric species. Of the six whistle parameters measured, maximum frequency had the lowest coefficient of variation for all five species, and duration and number of inflection points had the highest coefficients of variation for all five species.     

Differential attraction of females to dominant males: Olfactory discrimination and mating preference in the brown lemming (Lemmus trimucronatus)

Summary This study investigated differential attraction of estrous brown lemmings (Lemmus trimucronatus) to conspecific males recently exposed to each other for a 10-min agonistic encounter. In tests conducted 5 min, 1 h and 24 h after agonistic encounters, females preferred the oder of dominant males to that of defeated males when both odors were presented simultaneously in a Y-maze olfactometer. Defeat in an agonistic encounter did not reduce the propensity of male lemmings to initiate sexual behavior. In one-male, one-female tests conducted 5 min after agonistic encounters, dominant males achieved higher mount and thrust scores while defeated males obtained higher scores for attempted mounts. The sexual behavior of dominant and defeated males did not differ significantly in similar tests conducted 1 h and 24 h later. In contrast, females readily mated with dominant males and tended to avoid defeated males in two-male tethering tests conducted 5 min after agonistic encounters. In these tests, females still showed a preference for dominant males 1 h and 24 h after male agonistic encounters.