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31.
Some recent funding programmes in Australia on climate adaptation have expected active engagement with farmers in research projects. Based on our direct experience with 30 farmers and their advisors, we list five reasons why it is difficult to gain traction with farmers in discussing the likely impacts of climate change on their farms and the possible adaptation options they should be considering in preparation for a future changed climate. The reasons concern the slow and uncertain trajectory for changes in climate relative to the time horizon for farm decision-making, when set against short-term fluctuations in weather, prices, costs and government policy. Farmers have optimism for ongoing technological progress keeping abreast of any negative impacts of climate on their production. As one moves from incremental to transformational adaptation options, biophysical research has less to offer because decisions become based more on business structure, portfolio management, off-farm investments and geographical diversification. Some farmers also doubt the intentions of climate change researchers and are wary of anything they may have to offer. We propose there is an actionable decision space where agricultural science and economics can contribute to meaningful analysis of impacts and adaptation to climate change by farmers. This will involve emphasising the principles of farm management rather than defining optimal farm plans; the use of scenario planning to explore possible futures in a turbulent environment for farming; a focus on short-term adjustments as a path to longer term adaptation; re-gaining the trust of some farmers towards climate change scientists through better communication strategies; and understanding the linkages between adaptation options and enabling factors and technologies. 相似文献
32.
This paper presents an innovative, quantitative assessment of pollution avoidance attributable to environmental regulation enforced through integrated licensing, using Ireland's pharmaceutical-manufacturing sector as a case study. Emissions data reported by pharmaceutical installations were aggregated into a pollution trend using an Environmental Emissions Index (EEI) based on Lifecycle Assessment methodologies. Complete sectoral emissions data from 2001 to 2007 were extrapolated back to 1995, based on available data. Production volume data were used to derive a sectoral production index, and determine ‘no-improvement’ emission trends, whilst questionnaire responses from 20 industry representatives were used to quantify the contribution of integrated licensing to emission avoidance relative to these trends. Between 2001 and 2007, there was a 40% absolute reduction in direct pollution from 27 core installations, and 45% pollution avoidance relative to hypothetical ‘no-improvement’ pollution. It was estimated that environmental regulation avoided 20% of ‘no-improvement’ pollution, in addition to 25% avoidance under business-as-usual. For specific emissions, avoidance ranged from 14% and 30 kt a− 1 for CO2 to 88% and 598 t a− 1 for SOx. Between 1995 and 2007, there was a 59% absolute reduction in direct pollution, and 76% pollution avoidance. Pollution avoidance was dominated by reductions in emissions of VOCs, SOx and NOx to air, and emissions of heavy metals to water. Pollution avoidance of 35% was attributed to integrated licensing, ranging from between 8% and 2.9 t a− 1 for phosphorus emissions to water to 49% and 3143 t a− 1 for SOx emissions to air. Environmental regulation enforced through integrated licensing has been the major driver of substantial pollution avoidance achieved by Ireland's pharmaceutical sector — through emission limit values associated with Best Available Techniques, emissions monitoring and reporting requirements, and performance targets specified in environmental management plans. This compliant sector offers a positive, but not necessarily typical, case study of IPPC effectiveness. 相似文献
33.
Chester W. Spicer Michael W. Holdren Kenneth A. Cowen Darrell W. Joseph Jan Satola Bradley Goodwin Howard Mayfield Alexander Laskin M. Lizabeth Alexander John V. Ortega Matthew Newburn Robert Kagann Ram Hashmonay 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2009,43(16):2612-2622
Aircraft emissions affect air quality on scales from local to global. More than 20% of the jet fuel used in the U.S. is consumed by military aircraft, and emissions from this source are facing increasingly stringent environmental regulations, so improved methods for quickly and accurately determining emissions from existing and new engines are needed. This paper reports results of a study to advance the methods used for detailed characterization of military aircraft emissions, and provides emission factors for two aircraft: the F-15 fighter and the C-130 cargo plane. The measurements involved outdoor ground-level sampling downstream behind operational military aircraft. This permits rapid change-out of the aircraft so that engines can be tested quickly on operational aircraft. Measurements were made at throttle settings from idle to afterburner using a simple extractive probe in the dilute exhaust. Emission factors determined using this approach agree very well with those from the traditional method of extractive sampling at the exhaust exit. Emission factors are reported for CO2, CO, NO, NOx, and more than 60 hazardous and/or reactive organic gases. Particle size, mass and composition also were measured and are being reported separately. Comparison of the emissions of nine hazardous air pollutants from these two engines with emissions from nine other aircraft engines is discussed. 相似文献
34.
Cora J. Young Michael D. Hurley Timothy J. Wallington Scott A. Mabury 《Atmospheric environment (Oxford, England : 1994)》2009,43(24):3717-3724
Relative rate techniques were used to determine k(Cl + CF3CFCFCF3) = (7.27 ± 0.88) × 10?12, k(Cl + CF3CF2CFCF2) = (1.79 ± 0.41) × 10?11, k(OH + CF3CFCFCF3) = (4.82 ± 1.15) × 10?13, and k(OH + CF3CF2CFCF2) = (1.94 ± 0.27) × 10?12 cm3 molecule?1 s?1 in 700 Torr of air or N2 diluent at 296 K. The chlorine atom- and OH radical-initiated oxidation of CF3CFCFCF3 in 700 Torr of air gives CF3C(O)F in molar yields of 196 ± 11 and 218 ± 20%, respectively. Chlorine atom-initiated oxidation of CF3CF2CFCF2 gives molar yields of 97 ± 9% CF3CF2C(O)F and 97 ± 9% COF2. OH radical-initiated oxidation of CF3CF2CFCF2 gives molar yields of 110 ± 15% CF3CF2C(O)F and 99 ± 8% COF2. The atmospheric fate of CF3CF2C(O)F and CF3C(O)F is hydrolysis to give CF3CF2C(O)OH and CF3C(O)OH. The atmospheric lifetimes of CF3CFCFCF3 and CF3CF2CFCF2 are determined by reaction with OH radicals and are approximately 24 and 6 days, respectively. The contribution of CF3CFCFCF3 and CF3CF2CFCF2 to radiative forcing of climate change will be negligible. 相似文献
35.
Zhao Ma Dennis R. Becker Michael A. Kilgore 《Journal of Environmental Planning and Management》2009,52(8):1035-1051
Following the intent of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, many states have adopted policies and procedures directing state agencies and local government units to evaluate the potential environmental impacts of development projects prior to their undertaking. In contrast to a rich literature on federal requirements, current understanding of state environmental review is narrowly focused and outdated. This paper seeks to provide information on the landscape of state environmental review policy frameworks. The paper identifies 37 states with formal environmental review requirements through a document review of state statutes, administrative rules and agency-prepared materials, and confirms this finding through a survey of state administrators. A two-tier classification is used to distinguish states based on the approach taken to address environmental review needs and the scope and depth of relevant policies and procedures implemented. This paper also provides a discussion of policy and programme attributes that may contribute to effective practice, and of the potential for adopting relevant legislation in states where environmental review is currently lacking. 相似文献
36.
A method for quality screening is suggested to detect volatile impurities in inorganic coagulants that are used for drinking water treatment. Static headspace gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (HS–GCMS) is sensitive and selective to detect volatiles in low concentrations. This study has discovered that volatile organic impurities are detectable in ferric and aluminium-based coagulants which are used for drinking water treatment. For ferric chloride, 2-propanol was detected at a level of 17–24 μg ml−1, acetone at 0.7–1.7 μg ml−1, 1,1,1-trichloroacetone at 0.02–0.04 μg ml−1, trichloromethane at 0.01–0.02 μg ml−1 and toluene at 0.01–0.12 μg ml−1. For ferric chloride sulfate, acetone was detected at a level of 0.12 μg ml−1, 1,1,1-trichloroacetone at 0.06–0.08 μg ml−1, trichloromethane at 0.13–0.23 μg ml−1, bromodichloromethane at 0.04–0.06 μg ml−1 and dibromochloromethane at 0.04–0.05 μg ml−1. For aluminium hydroxide chloride, only trichloromethane was detectable, but below the method detection limits (MDL). Although the concentrations of these impurities in commercial coagulants are low, this observation is important and should have impact on water industries for them to pay attention to the chemicals they are using for drinking water production. 相似文献
37.
The dispersion of pollutants from naturally ventilated underground parking garages has been studied in a boundary layer wind tunnel. Two idealized model setups have been analysed, one was simulating pollutant dispersion around an isolated rectangular building and one was representing dispersion in a finite array of idealized building blocks. Flow and dispersion close to modelled ground level emission sources was measured. The results illustrate the complexity of the flow around buildings and provide insight in pollutant transport from ground level sources located directly on building surfaces. As a result, areas critical with respect to high pollutant concentrations could be visualized. Particularly, the results show high concentration gradients on the surface of the buildings equipped with modelled emission sources. Inside the boundary layers on the building walls, a significant amount of pollutants is transported to upwind locations on the surface of the building. The paper documents the potential of physical modelling to be used for the simulation and measurement of dispersion close to emission sources and within complex building arrangements. 相似文献
38.
39.
Watts MJ Button M Brewer TS Jenkin GR Harrington CF 《Journal of environmental monitoring : JEM》2008,10(6):753-759
The relationship between the total arsenic concentration and the chemical speciation of arsenic in two species of earthworm (Lumbricus rubellus and Dendrodrilus rubidus) in relation to the host soil, was investigated for 13 sites of varying arsenic content, including a background level garden soil and a former mine site at the Devon Great Consols, UK. Earthworms were collected with the host soil (As soil concentration range 16-12, 466 mg kg(-1) dry weight) and measured for their total arsenic (concentration range 7-595 mg kg(-1) dry weight) using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). A methanol-water mixture was used to extract arsenic species from the earthworms prior to determination of the individual arsenic species by a combination of anion and cation exchange high performance liquid chromatography coupled to inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (HPLC-ICP-MS). A gradient elution anion exchange method is presented whereby nine arsenic species could be measured in one sample injection. Arsenic species were identified by comparison of retention times and sample spiking with known standards and a fully characterised seaweed extract. Arsenic was generally present in the earthworm as arsenate (As(V)) or arsenite (As(III)) and arsenobetaine (AB). Methylarsonate (MA), dimethylarsinate (DMA) and three arsenosugars (glycerol, phosphate, sulfate) were present as minor constituents. These results are discussed in relation to the mechanisms for coping with exposure to soil bound arsenic. 相似文献
40.
We developed a systematic process to evaluate state/tribal bioassessment programs to provide information about the rigor of the technical approach. This is accomplished via on-site interviews to produce an evaluation that assigns one of four levels of rigor as an outcome. Level 4 is the most rigorous and reflects a technical capacity to accurately determine incremental condition and support management programs. The remaining three levels are less able to assess incremental condition and are appropriate for only some management support needs. Accurately determining impairment and diagnosing pollution-specific stressors are fundamental tasks that states/tribes must accomplish to provide management support. This goal is fulfilled to varying degrees by most states/tribes. The evaluation employs a checklist and a sliding scale of rigor for 13 technical elements. Feedback is provided to each state/tribe via a technical memorandum that describes the technical components of the monitoring program, highlights strengths, and recommends improvements for specific technical issues. This can be used to refine the bioassessment and monitoring programs to better support management programs. The results of 14 state/tribal evaluations are included here. The majority (nine states, one tribe) revealed that most operate at level 2 with developmental activities that will elevate the level of program rigor already underway. Two states operate level 4 programs and each have numeric biocriteria and refined designated uses in their water quality standards. This is the ultimate goal of the process of engaging states in the development of bioassessment programs in the U.S. 相似文献