Preventing corruption in humanitarian assistance: perceptions, gaps and challenges

Corruption is a threat to the purpose of humanitarian assistance. Until fairly recently, humanitarian assistance has not been considered an important arena in broader efforts aimed at curbing corruption, and corruption has not always been considered a particularly important concern for humanitarian assistance despite the obviously challenging nature of the context of humanitarian emergencies. Corruption, though, is a threat to humanitarian action because it can prevent assistance from getting to the people who most need it, and because it can potentially undermine public support for such assistance. This paper examines perceptions of corruption and its affects, documents best practices, and outlines gaps in understanding. It suggests recommendations for improving the capacity of humanitarian agencies to prevent and manage the risk of corruption. Agencies have taken steps to combat corruption and improve accountability--downwards and upwards--but scope remains for improvement and for greater sharing of learning and good practice.     

The Effects of Some Air Pollutants and Meteorological Conditions on Airborne Algae and Protozoa

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effects of meteorological conditions and specific air pollutants on the viability of airborne algae and protozoa. Such investigations will be of interest to medical researchers because these organisms are the source of many allergies. The three air pollutants that were continuously measured and recorded were sulfur, hydrocarbons, and particulate maiter. During the experiment, 25 different species of algae and 19 species of protozoa were collected from the atmosphere and cultured at the Westinghouse Environmental Station Laboratory in Raleigh, North Carolina. The algae and protozoa were collected over a one-year period (Jan-Dec 1971) by using a sequential sampler that moved air through a membrane filter at the rate of 15 ft³/hr. Every two hours a new filter was sequentially moved in to replace the old one. The results indicated a relationship between wind speed, wind direction, temperature, dew-point, particulate matter, barometric pressure, and rainfall to the percent frequency of positive culture tubes and number of cells/ft³ of air. Further studies are necessary to determine the interrelationships between the physical and chemical character of various air masses and their effect on the survival of algae and protozoa.     

A Pilot Indoor-Outdoor Study of Organic Particulate Matter and Particulate Mutagenicity

Abstract

Many large metropolitan areas experience elevated concentrations of ground-level ozone pollution during the summertime “smog season”. Local environmental or health agencies often need to make daily air pollution forecasts for public advisories and for input into decisions regarding abatement measures and air quality management. Such forecasts are usually based on statistical relationships between weather conditions and ambient air pollution concentrations. Multivariate linear regression models have been widely used for this purpose, and well-specified regressions can provide reasonable results. However, pollution-weather relationships are typically complex and nonlinear—especially for ozone—properties that might be better captured by neural networks. This study investigates the potential for using neural networks to forecast ozone pollution, as compared to traditional regression models. Multiple regression models and neural networks are examined for a range of cities under different climate and ozone regimes, enabling a comparative study of the two approaches. Model comparison statistics indicate that neural network techniques are somewhat (but not dramatically) better than regression models for daily ozone prediction, and that all types of models are sensitive to different weather-ozone regimes and the role of persistence in aiding predictions.     

Particulate,Carbon Monoxide,and Acid Emission Factors for Residential Wood Burning Stoves

Emissions from residential wood burning stoves are of Increasing concern in many areas. This concern is due to the magnitude of the emissions and the toxic and chemical characteristics of the pollutants. Recent testing of standard and new technology woodstoves has provided data for developing a family of particulate and carbon monoxide emission factor curves. This testing has also provided data illustrating the acidity of woodstove emissions. The particulate and carbon monoxide curves relate the actual stove emissions to the stove size and operating parameters of burn rate, fuel loading, and fuel moisture. Curves relating stove types to the acidity of emissions have also been constructed.

Test data show actual emissions vary from 3 to 50 grams per kilogram for particles and from 50 to 300 grams per kilogram for carbon monoxide. Since woodstove emissions are the largest single category of particulate emissions in many areas, it Is essential that these emissions be quantified specifically for geographic regions, allowing meaningful impact analysis modeling to be accomplished. Emission factors for particles and carbon monoxide are presented from several stove sizes and burn rates.

The acidic nature of woodstove emissions has been clearly demonstrated. Tests indicate woodstove flue gas condensate solutions to be predominantly in the 2.8 to 4.2 pH range. Condensate solutions from conventional woodstoves exhibited the characteristic buffering capacity of carboxylic acids when titrations were performed with a strong base. The environmental impact of buffered acidic woodstove emissions is not currently well understood; however, it is possible with the data presented here to make semi-quantitative estimates of acid emissions from particulate and carbon monoxide emission factors and wood use inventories.     

Indoor/Outdoor Measurements of Volatile Organic Compounds in the Kanawha Valley of West Virginia

The Kanawha Valley region of West Virginia which is comprised of Charleston and surrounding communities Is the center of a heavily industrialized area known for its chemical manufacturing. As part of a larger study designed to investigate the Impact of the chemical industry on human exposures to volatile organic compounds (VOC), a study of the relationship between indoor and outdoor concentrations was conducted. Thirty-five homes were selected for monitoring from among volunteers; approximately ten in each of three distinct population-industry centers and four outside the Valley to act as controls. Monitoring was performed using passive, badge samplers with a three-week monitoring period. Two separate questionnaires were administered: one for characterization of the residence; and one to characterize source use during monitoring. Participants were also asked to keep a record of their activities with respect to in-home, outdoors and other Indoor environments. Analysis of the samplers was performed by solvent extraction followed by gas chromatography using a flame-ionization detector. Results suggest that indoor VOC concentrations are higher than outdoor concentrations. Additionally, certain ventilation-related parameters were identified that afforded some predictive power for indoor concentrations. No statistically significant differences between regions were identified.     

Speciation of Arsenic in Ambient Aerosols Collected in Los Angeles

First-time measurements of the potentially toxic inorganic species of arsenic (arsenite arid arsenate) have been obtained in fine (<2.5 µm AD) and coarse (>2.5 µm AD) atmospheric particles in the Los Angeles area. A recently developed method that includes procedures for sample collection, preparation, and analysis was used in this study. Size-fractlonated aerosol samples were collected with a high-volume dichotomous virtual impactor that employed polytetrafluoroethylene filters. Results were obtained for the recovery of arsenic standards added to unexposed and collected filters. Data from this study, indicated that the recently developed speciation method can be used to determine concentrations of As(lll) and As(V) In atmospheric particulate matter samples.

Size-fractionated aerosol samples were collected in the city of Industry during January and February 1987. In most samples, As(lll) and As( V) were above the detection limit (approximately 1 ng m^-3 of either species) in both aerosol size fractions. A greater portion (about 75 percent) of the two species were observed in the fine particles. The As(lll)/As(V) ratio for both particle sizes was close to 1 (I.e., an equal mixture of both species). Comparison of total suspended particulate arsenic measured by the speciation method to that measured by a routine California Air Resources Board-approved procedure showed good agreement (r = 0.94), indicating both methods were approximately equivalent for the collection and analysis of aerosol arsenic.     

Pulmonary Function Changes Associated with an Air Pollution Episode in January 1987

In January 1987, an air pollution episode occurred In central and western Europe. Levels of SO₂, NO₂, black smoke, sulphates and other components were elevated, with 24 hour average concentrations of SO₂ reaching a maximum of close to 300 μg/m3 In an area In the southeast of the Netherlands. Pulmonary function was measured In a group of children of 6- 12 years old at the end of the episode, and also two and three and a half weeks after the episode. A baseline lung function value was obtained about three months before the episode. Pulmonary function growth between baseline and retest dates was estimated from a simple growth model which was validated using measured pulmonary function growth data from a longitudinal study. A decline of pulmonary function (FVC, FEV₁ and PEF) from predicted baseline levels was observed, starting on the last day of the episode. Two weeks after the episode, FVC, FEV₁ PEF and MMEF were all decreased, and three and a half weeks after the episode, there was still a deficit compared to predicted baseline levels for FVC and FEV₁     

Regional Photochemical Measurement and Modeling Studies: A Summary of the Air & Waste Management Association International Specialty Conference

Abstract

This paper summarizes the Air & Waste Management Association’s International Specialty Conference, "Regional Photochemical Measurement and Modeling Studies," held in San Diego, California, on November 8-12,1993. The purpose of the conference was to facilitate exchange of information and to initiate better communication and interaction among scientists, air quality managers, regulators, and others involved in or applying tools (models and measurements to support the modeling efforts) that can be used to develop equitable and effective emissions management practices for attainment of ozone standards. Attendees heard more than 350 presentations from authors representing nearly 30 air quality and meteorological measurement and modeling studies from 18 countries. While the primary emphasis of the conference was technical, two policy sessions were included (Plenary and Concluding Sessions) to place the technical results in perspective with the policy issues. The technical agenda was divided into three subjects: Analysis of Field Measurements (results and interpretation), Modeling (status and results), and Other Topics. Papers presented at the conference are being published in a variety of journals or books to meet the needs of the scientific and policy communities. A complete bibliographical listing of the papers presented at the conference is included with this paper.

An unexpected outcome of the conference has been the development of an initiative for continuing the intercomparison of goals and scientific findings from regional air quality studies in Europe and North America, entitled “Regional Oxidants Programs Intercomparison” (ROxPIn). This paper will also discuss the goals and objectives of ROxPIn.     

Carbon Monoxide Exposures Inside an Automobile Traveling on an Urban Arterial Highway

Carbon monoxide (CO) exposures were measured inside a motor vehicle during 88 standardized drives on a major urban arterial highway, El Camino Real (traffic volume of 30,500-45,000 vehicles per day), over a 13-1/2 month period. On each trip (lasting between 31 and 61 minutes), the test vehicle drove the same 5.9-mile segment of roadway in both directions, for a total of 11.8 miles, passing through 20 intersections with traffic lights (10 in each direction) in three California cities (Menlo Park, Palo Alto, and Los Altos). Earlier tests showed that the test vehicle was free of CO intrusion. For the 88 trips, the mean CO concentration was 9.8 ppm, with a standard deviation of 5.8 ppm. Of nine covariates that were examined to explain the variability in the mean CO exposures observed on the 88 trips (ambient CO at two fixed stations, atmospheric stability, seasonal trend function, time of day, average surrounding vehicle count, trip duration, proportion of time stopped at lights, and instrument type), a fairly strong seasonal trend was found. A model consisting of only a single measure of traffic volume and a seasonal trend component had substantial predictive power (R² = 0.68); by contrast, the ambient CO levels, although partially correlated with average exposures, contributed comparatively little predictive power to the model. The CO exposures experienced while drivers waited at the red lights at an intersection ranged from 6.8 to 14.9 ppm and differed considerably from intersection to intersection. A model also was developed to relate the short-term variability of exposures to averaging time for trip times ranging from 1 to 20 minutes using a variogram approach to deal with the serial autocorrelation. This study shows: (1) the mass balance equation can relate exterior CO concentrations as a function of time to interior CO concentrations; (2) CO exposures on urban arterial highways vary seasonally; (3) momentary CO exposures experienced behind red lights vary with the intersection; and (4) an averaging time model can simulate exposures during short trips (20 minutes or less) on urban arterial highways.