SOCIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WATER DEVELOPMENT1

Decisions to develop water resources systems so far have been primarily taken on the basis of engineering and economic feasibilities. Very rarely, if ever, sociological feasibility has been considered, except in a very broad sense. Planning is for the people, and it should improve the quality of life. Hence, it is argued that water resources decisions ought to be primarily social ones, and that the success or failure of any resource development should not only be judged by its techno-economic excellence but also by its impact on people. Water resources planning process is discussed, and the difficulties associated with the evaluation of sociological feasibility of projects are enumerated. The social consequences of water development projects are traced through planning, construction, operation and management impacts. Finally, it is suggested that the foremost factor in the success of any water management program is the public understanding and acceptance of that program.     

A review of approaches for classifying benthic habitats and evaluating habitat quality

We have assessed the current state of knowledge relative to methods used in assessing sub-tidal benthic habitat quality and the classification of benthic habitats. While our main focus is on marine habitat, we extensively draw on knowledge gained in freshwater systems where benthic assessment procedures are at an advanced stage of maturity. We found a broad range of sophistication/complication in terms of the methods applied in assessing and mapping benthic habitats. The simplest index or metric involved some assessment of species richness, while the most complicated required utilizing multi-variate analysis. The simplest mapping attempts equated physical substrate with benthic habitat while the most sophisticated relied on extensive environmental preference and groundtruth data for species of concern. The leading edge of methods for benthic habitat mapping involves combining the advances in optical and acoustic methods that allow for routine classifying and mapping of the seafloor with biological and habitat data for species of concern. The objective of this melding of dispirit methods is to produce benthic habitat maps with broad system wide coverage and sound biological underpinning. It is clear that the disparity in information density between the physical and biological sides of the equation currently hinder applicability and acceptability of benthic habitat mapping efforts. In addition to the lack of basic information on the biological and environmental tolerances of targeted species, the proliferation of metrics for characterizing and assessing biological conditions further clouds the usefulness of any broad scale mapping attempt. The problem of data density mismatch between physical and biological methods will likely not be solved until acoustic methods can routinely resolve the elusive biological components that make a physical substrate a habitat.     

Abatement cost curves: a viable management tool for enabling the achievement of win-win waste reduction strategies?

Environmental regulation of industrial activity is generally believed to have a negative impact on the industry. Recent literature has suggested, however, that reducing industrial waste outputs can, in some circumstances, result in a 'win-win', or at least 'win-draw', scenario for industry and the environment. The viability of using the abatement cost curve method as a management tool to enable the achievement of a 'win-win' state is investigated here. Copper pollution in the Humber Estuary is used as a case-study, and the abatement cost curve methodology proves to be a valuable tool in identifying barriers to achieving the win-win state, and also in providing future direction for the waste management strategy. Abatement cost curves are concluded to be powerful management tools which greatly improve the transparency of waste reduction information.     

An Approach for Estimating Soil Carbon Using the National Nutrient Loss Database

Agricultural lands have the potential to contribute to greenhouse gas mitigation by sequestering organic carbon within the soil. Credible and consistent estimates will be necessary to design programs and policies to encourage management practices that increase carbon sequestration. Because a nationwide survey of soil carbon by the wide range of natural resources and management conditions of the United States is prohibitively expensive, a simulation modeling approach must be used. The National Nutrient Loss Database (NNLD) is a modeling and database system designed and built jointly by the USDA– Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) and Texas A&M University to provide science-based inferences on environmental impacts from changes in agricultural management practices and programs at the regional and national level. Currently, the NNLD simulates 16 crops and covers 1.35 × 10⁸ ha. For estimating soil carbon sequestration, the database will be populated with 1.5 × 10⁶ field-level model runs using the EPIC (Environmental Policy Impact Calculator) model, which includes newly incorporated carbon equations consistent with those in the Century model. Each run will represent a unique situation defined by state, crop, climate, soil, irrigation type, conservation practice, tillage system, and nutrient management treatment (nutrient rate, application frequency, application timing, and manure category). Results are to be assigned to specific National Resource Inventory points (NRI) to simulate regional and national baselines. In this article we present the modeling approach and discuss the strengths and limitations. Published online     

Identifying ecoregion boundaries

This article summarizes the rationale I used in identifying ecoregion boundaries on maps of the United States, North America, and the world's continents, published from 1976 to 1998. The geographic reasoning used in drawing boundaries involves 20 principles, which are presented to stimulate discussion and further understanding. Brief background and references are provided for the principles.     

Effectiveness of Voluntary Habitat Stewardship in Conserving Grassland: Case of Operation Burrowing Owl in Saskatchewan

There have been no published performance evaluations of nongovernmental, voluntary habitat stewardship programs. The Operation Burrowing Owl (OBO) stewardship program, initiated in 1987, was evaluated for its effectiveness in conservation of grassland habitat during 1986–1993. The 108 OBO sites from 1987 to 88 and 98 randomly selected non-OBO sites that were grassland in 1986 in the Regina-Weyburn, Saskatchewan study area were classified by size and agricultural soil suitability. By 1993, 41 (38%) of the 108 OBO sites had been withdrawn from the program. The 1986 area of grassland was compared with grassland area calculated from digitized 1993 LANDSAT imagery. A correction for satellite inaccuracies was determined. Grassland retention in 1993 was significantly higher at OBO sites (66%) than at random sites (49%), demonstrating that the OBO voluntary program effectively conserved habitat. Also, grassland retention was significantly lower on sites with better agricultural soils, and for sites <12 ha in size. Site type (OBO or random), size and their interaction, followed by agricultural soil suitability, had the greatest effects on grassland retention. During an era of accelerated grassland loss, OBO strongly and positively (statistically significant) affected conservation of grassland sites most at risk: sites <12 ha in size and with good to excellent agricultural soils. This suggests that grassland conservation efforts focus on vulnerable sites (small size and/or good agricultural soils) to provide nesting habitat for burrowing owls. Our study demonstrates that a voluntary stewardship program can significantly increase conservation of habitat.     

The Missing Flux in a 35S Budget for the Soils of a Small Polluted Catchment

A combination of cosmogenic and artificial ³⁵S was used to assess the movement of sulfur in a steep Central European catchment affected by spruce die-back. The Jeze?í catchment, Kru?né Hory Mts. (Czech Republic) is characterized by a large disproportion between atmospheric S input and S output via stream discharge, with S output currently exceeding S input three times. A relatively high natural concentration of cosmogenic ³⁵S (42 mBq L^-1) was found in atmospheric deposition into the catchment in winter and spring of 2000. In contrast, stream discharge contained only 2 mBq L^-1. Consequently, more than 95% of the deposited S is cycled or retained within the catchment for more than several months, while older S is exported via surface water. In spring, when the soil temperature is above 0 °C, practically no S from instantaneous rainfall is exported, despite the steepness of the slopes and the relatively short mean residence time of water in the catchment (6.5 months). Sulfur cycling in the soil includes not just adsorption of inorganic sulfate and biological uptake, but also volatilization of S compounds back into the atmosphere. Laboratory incubations of an Orthic Podzol from Jeze?í spiked with 720 kBq of artificial ³⁵S showed a 20% loss of the spike within 18 weeks under summer conditions. Under winter conditions, the ³⁵S loss was insignificant (<5%). This missing S flux was interpreted as volatilized hydrogen sulfide resulting from intermittent dissimilatory bacterial sulfate reduction. The missing S flux is comparable to the estimated uncertainty in many catchment S mass balances (±10%), or even larger, and should be considered in constructing these mass balances. In severely polluted forest catchments, such as Jeze?í, sulfur loss to volatilization may exceed 13 kg ha^-1 a^-1, which is more than the current total atmospheric S input in large parts of North America and Europe.     

DECISION FRAMEWORK FOR SEDIMENT CONTROL IN MUDDY CREEK WATERSHED1

ABSTRACT: The tailwater of Bridgewater Dam, below Lake James, North Carolina, is a designated trout stream. It has environmental attributes for a good cold water fishery with the exception of high suspended sediments. Muddy Creek, a tributary about 1.5 km downstream of the dam, is a major source of sediments. The Muddy Creek Watershed Restoration Initiative was established to develop and implement a sediment control plan. The Watershed Analysis Risk Management Framework was applied to simulate soil erosion and sedimentation and to help determine appropriate action. The simulated sediment concentrations of the river were comparable to observed data from November 1994 to November 2001. For the base condition, the sediment load was 135,000 kg/d from surface erosion and 1,300,000 kg/d from bank erosion. Increasing the buffer strip from existing 50 to 80 percent to 100 percent of stream segments would only reduce surface erosion to 70,400 kg/d with little change in sediment concentrations. Eliminating riverbank erosion would reduce the sediment load from 920,000 to 87,700 kg/d. The bank stabilization project would not only lower suspended sediment concentrations for Muddy Creek, but also reduce the lake sediment accumulation in the downstream Lake Rhodhiss by approximately 13 percent.