Why Economics Matters for Endangered Species Protection

Abstract: We offer three reasons why economics matters more to species protection than many people think and what this implies for the ongoing debate over the reauthorization of the Endangered Species Act of 1973. Economics matters because (1) human behavior generally, and economic parameters in particular, help determine the degree of risk to a species; (2) in a world of scarce resources, the opportunity cost of species protection—the costs of reduced resources for other worthwhile causes—must be taken into account in decision making; and (3) economic incentives are critical in shaping human behavior, and consequently the recovery of species. Endangered species protection that explicitly addresses these basic principles can avoid wasting valuable resources that yield no gain in species protection.     

Isopropyl (Z9)-hexadecenoate as a male attractant pheromone from the sternal gland of the rove beetle Aleochara curtala (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)

Summary. In the rove beetle Aleochara curtula, a male specific sternal gland is described. Isopropyl (Z9)-hexadecenoate has been identified by GC/MS of surface and sternal gland extracts as a male specific compound. Its emission in the air was demonstrated by closed-loopstripping-analyses. In field experiments, conspecific males and females were attracted by the odor of carrion, caged males from laboratory cultures, and by the synthetic ester. Isopropyl (Z9)-hexadecenoate or live males, combined with fresh carrion attract more beetles than a fresh carcass alone. Isopropyl hexadecanoate as a minor compound was not attractive. The term “aggregation” pheromone and the ecological significance of attracting females to a fresh carcass allowing early copulation and egg-deposition are discussed. Received 20 August 1998; accepted 15 January 1999.     

Putting free-riding to work: A Partnership Solution to the common-property problem

The common-property problem results in excessive mining, hunting, and extraction of oil and water. The same phenomenon is also responsible for excessive investment in R&D and excessive outlays in rent-seeking contests. We propose a “Partnership Solution” to eliminate or at least mitigate these excesses. Each of N players joins a partnership in the first stage and chooses his effort in the second stage. Under the rules of a partnership, each member must pay his own cost of effort but receives an equal share of the partnership's revenue. The incentive to free-ride created by such partnerships turns out to be beneficial since it naturally offsets the excessive effort inherent in such problems. In our two-stage game, this institutional arrangement can, under specified circumstances, induce the social optimum in a subgame-perfect equilibrium: no one has a unilateral incentive (1) to switch to another partnership (or create a new partnership) in the first stage or (2) to deviate from socially optimal actions in the second stage. The game may have other subgame-perfect equilibria, but the one associated with the “Partnership Solution” is strictly preferred by every player. We also propose a modification of the first stage which generates a unique subgame-perfect equilibrium. Antitrust authorities should recognize that partnerships can have a less benign use. By organizing as competing partnerships, an industry can reduce the “excessive” output of Cournot oligopoly to the monopoly level. Since no partner has any incentive to overproduce in the current period, there is no need to deter cheating with threats of future punishments.     

Government and biodiversity governance in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan: an institutional perspective

Over the last 15 years, Azerbaijan has doubled its protected areas territory to almost 10 % of the country’s surface area. Although the daily management of the existing strictly protected areas continues to pose a challenge, the establishment of nine national parks has been a remarkable achievement. At present, the designation of UNESCO biosphere reserves (BR) is the expressed political will of the government. By reviewing the last 25 years of nature conservation, and, in particular, the national park programme, we present an institutional analysis for integrative nature conservation in Azerbaijan. Against the cultural, social and political background, in particular the transition of the state, the challenges for cross-hierarchical governance of protected areas are outlined at the example of a BR. We find that the implementation of the UNESCO MAB philosophy, which is based on inter alia participation by administration, local communities and rural stakeholder, is hampered by this present-day political reality. The political situation and an autocratic governance scheme put successful implementation of a “model region of sustainable development” at risk. Education and empowerment are a prerequisite for eventual success; this is true for Azerbaijan as well as for other Post-Soviet countries with strong top-down regimes.     

A method for the assessment of long-term changes in carbon stock by construction of a hydropower reservoir

Sustainability of hydropower reservoirs has been questioned since the detection of their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions which are mainly composed of carbon dioxide and methane. A method to assess the impact on the carbon cycle caused by the transition from a natural river system into a reservoir is presented and discussed. The method evaluates the long term changes in carbon stock instead of the current approach of monitoring and integrating continuous short term fluxes. A case study was conducted in a subtropical reservoir in Brazil, showing that the carbon content within the reservoir exceeds that of the previous landuse. The average carbon sequestration over 43 years since damming was 895 mg C m\(^{-2}\mathrm{{day}}^{-1}\) and found to be mainly due to storage of carbon in sediments. These results demonstrate that reservoirs have two opposite effects on the balance of GHGs. By storing organic C in sediments, reservoirs are an important carbon sink. On the other hand, reservoirs increase the flux of methane into the atmosphere. If the sediments of reservoirs could be used for long term C storage, reservoirs might have a positive effect on the balance of GHGs.     

Evaluation of septum-capped vials for storage of gas samples during air transport

In order to provide information on the suitability of commonly used gas storage vials for air transport, we tested two vial types on their ability to preserve defined nitrous oxide concentrations and excess pressure when exposed to low pressure, low temperature and puncture by needles. Unlike in Crimp Cap vials, in Exetainers no nitrous oxide loss following low pressure storage was detectable. Tightness of Exetainers following multiple puncture was best using a small needle diameter. Pressure loss following 5, 10, or 25 punctures was lowest in the Exetainers. We conclude that Exetainers are suitable for storing gas samples for an extended period of time during aircraft transport.     

Dust exposure in indoor climbing halls

The use of hydrated magnesium carbonate hydroxide (magnesia alba) for drying the hands is a strong source for particulate matter in indoor climbing halls. Particle mass concentrations (PM10, PM2.5 and PM1) were measured with an optical particle counter in 9 indoor climbing halls and in 5 sports halls. Mean values for PM10 in indoor climbing halls are generally on the order of 200-500 microg m(-3). For periods of high activity, which last for several hours, PM10 values between 1000 and 4000 microg m(-3) were observed. PM(2.5) is on the order of 30-100 microg m(-3) and reaches values up to 500 microg m(-3), if many users are present. In sports halls, the mass concentrations are usually much lower (PM10 < 100 microg m(-3), PM2.5 < or = 20 microg m(-3)). However, for apparatus gymnastics (a sport in which magnesia alba is also used) similar dust concentrations as for indoor climbing were observed. The size distribution and the total particle number concentration (3.7 nm-10 microm electrical mobility diameter) were determined in one climbing hall by an electrical aerosol spectrometer. The highest number concentrations were between 8000 and 12 000 cm(-3), indicating that the use of magnesia alba is no strong source for ultrafine particles. Scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray microanalysis revealed that virtually all particles are hydrated magnesium carbonate hydroxide. In-situ experiments in an environmental scanning electron microscope showed that the particles do not dissolve at relative humidities up to 100%. Thus, it is concluded that solid particles of magnesia alba are airborne and have the potential to deposit in the human respiratory tract. The particle mass concentrations in indoor climbing halls are much higher than those reported for schools and reach, in many cases, levels which are observed for industrial occupations. The observed dust concentrations are below the current occupational exposure limits in Germany of 3 and 10 mg m(-3) for respirable and inhalable dust. However, the dust concentrations exceed the German guide lines for work places without use of hazardous substances. In addition, minimizing dust concentrations to technologically feasible values is required by the current German legislation. Therefore, substantial reduction of the dust concentration is required.     

Life and Death in the Fast Lane: Demographic Consequences of Road Mortality in the Florida Scrub-Jay

Abstract: We examined the demographic consequences of road mortality in the cooperatively breeding Florida Scrub-Jay (Aphelocoma coerulescens ), a threatened species restricted to the oak scrub of peninsular Florida. Between May 1986 and July 1995 we monitored the survival and reproductive success of a color-banded population of jays along a two-lane highway at Archbold Biological Station. Annual mortality of breeding adults was 0.38 on road territories, significantly higher than the rate of 0.23 for breeders on nonroad territories. High mortality on road territories appeared to be a direct result of automobile traffic per se and not a consequence of road-induced changes in habitat characteristics. Mortality was especially high for immigrants without previous experience living along the road: in their first two years as breeders on road territories, naive immigrants experienced annual mortality of 0.50 and 0.45. From year 3 onward, however, annual mortality dropped to 0.29, not significantly different from the rate for birds on nonroad territories. This experience-dependent decline in road mortality could be caused either by surviving jays learning to avoid automobiles or by selective mortality operating through time (demographic heterogeneity). Proximity to the road had no effect on nesting success beyond its indirect effects on breeder experience and group size. Because the mortality of 30- to 90-day-old fledglings was significantly higher on road territories than on nonroad territories, however, breeder mortality greatly exceeded production of yearlings on road territories. Roadside territories therefore are sinks that can maintain populations of Florida Scrub-Jays only via immigration. Because Florida Scrub-Jays do not avoid roadside habitats and may even be attracted to them, road mortality presents a difficult challenge for the management and conservation of this threatened and declining species.     

Reconnecting Cities to the Biosphere: Stewardship of Green Infrastructure and Urban Ecosystem Services

Within-city green infrastructure can offer opportunities and new contexts for people to become stewards of ecosystem services. We analyze cities as social–ecological systems, synthesize the literature, and provide examples from more than 15 years of research in the Stockholm urban region, Sweden. The social–ecological approach spans from investigating ecosystem properties to the social frameworks and personal values that drive and shape human interactions with nature. Key findings demonstrate that urban ecosystem services are generated by social–ecological systems and that local stewards are critically important. However, land-use planning and management seldom account for their role in the generation of urban ecosystem services. While the small scale patchwork of land uses in cities stimulates intense interactions across borders much focus is still on individual patches. The results highlight the importance and complexity of stewardship of urban biodiversity and ecosystem services and of the planning and governance of urban green infrastructure.