Radioactivity and heavy metal composition of Nigerian phosphate rocks: possible environmental implications

Phosphate rock samples collected from the Dange Formation within the Sokoto basin were analyzed for trace element constituents using instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) and X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRFA) techniques, while natural activity concentrations due to 235U, 232Th, and 40K were determined by gamma-ray spectrometry. The analytical results show that the average concentrations of some toxic elements (As, Sb, Cr, and Zn) in phosphate rocks are not appreciably different from that in agricultural soils. However the U and Th contents are enriched significantly in comparison. The results were used to assess the environmental toxicity of heavy metals and radiation hazard attributable to the direct application of phosphate rock as fertilizer.     

Critical remarks on the use of terrestrial moss (Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi) for monitoring of airborne pollution

Duplicate samples of the two terrestrial moss species Hylocomium splendens and Pleurozium schreberi, which are widely used to monitor airborne heavy metal pollution, have been collected from eight catchments spread over a 1,500,000 km2 area in northern Europe. These were analysed for a total of 38 elements by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry and cold vapour-atomic absorption spectometry techniques. Results show that the moss species can be combined without interspecies calibration for regional mapping purposes. For the majority of elements the observed within-catchment variation is large--big composite samples over a large area should thus be collected when moss is to be used for monitoring purposes. For the majority of elements the input of dust governs moss chemistry. For a reliable 'contamination' signal over a sizeable area a major source is needed. Some elements show a dependence on climate/vegetation zone. In coastal areas the input of marine aerosols will alter the chemical signal obtained from moss samples.     

Anthropogenic radionuclides in the Japan Sea: their distributions and transport processes

The anthropogenic radionuclides, (90)Sr, (137)Cs and (239+240)Pu, were measured in the water column of the Japan Sea/East Sea during 1997-2000. The vertical profiles of radionuclide concentrations showed: exponential decrease with depth for (90)Sr and (137)Cs, and surface minimum/subsurface maximum for (239+240)Pu. These results do not differ substantially from results reported previously. The area-averaged concentrations of radionuclides in the Japan Sea are higher than those found in the Northwest Pacific Ocean below surface layer showing the accumulation of the radionuclides in the deep waters in the Japan Sea. Concerning spatial distributions, the area of high (137)Cs inventory extends from the Japan Basin into the Yamato Basin. It is suggested that wintertime convection of water, occurring mainly in the Japan Basin, causes the radionuclides to sink. The nuclides then advect into the Yamato Basin after detouring around the Yamato Rise.     

Organochlorine pollutants in remote mountain lake waters

Hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs; alpha- and gamma-isomers), endosulfans (alpha- and beta-isomers and the sulfate residue), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDTs), and polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs) were measured in waters from three European remote mountain lakes situated in the Alps, Pyrenees, and Caledonian mountains. Sampling encompassed both ice-free and ice-covered periods at different water column depths. High HCH concentrations were found in all lakes, those in the Alps and Pyrenees (990-2,900 pg/L) being among the highest recorded in continental waters. Endosulfans and endosulfan sulfate (120-1,150 pg/L) were the second major group of organochlorine contaminants, showing a remarkable stability upon atmospheric long-range transport. The concentrations of HCB, DDTs, and PCB (4-8, 0.6-16, and 26-110 pg/L, respectively) were low in comparison with other continental waters. Hexachlorocyclohexanes, endosulfans, and HCB were essentially found in the dissolved phase. Phase partitioning of the more hydrophobic compounds exhibited a dependence on temperature and water-suspended particles. Comparison between different sampling seasons and water depths indicated a remarkable concentration uniformity within lake, but major interlake differences. Normalization to turnover rates showed higher interlake similarity. Preferential accumulation of the less volatile compounds in the Alp lake and significant increase of baseline contributions of organochlorine compounds and residues in the Caledonian lake are also evidenced from these turnover rates.     

Removal of herbicides from liquid media by fungi isolated from a contaminated soil

Fungi were isolated from soil samples corresponding to pesticide-contaminated soil (CS) and noncontaminated soil (NCS) in the Annaba vicinity (Algeria) and identified. The number of isolates obtained from CS and NCS were 263 and 288, respectively. The most frequent species (Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger, A. terreus, Absidia corymbifera, and Rhizopus microsporus var microsporus) were not sensitive to the pesticides. The growth of the genus Trichoderma was inhibited by the pesticides, while genera Absidia and Fusarium were stimulated. The 53 species isolated were assayed for their ability to remove metribuzin from liquid medium. Only Botrytis cinerea from NCS and Sordaria superba and Absidia fusca from CS removed more than 50% of the compound after 5 d. Metamitron was very resistant. Among the 21 species tested, only Alternaria solani (from NCS), Drechslera australiensis (from CS and NCS), and Absidia fusca (from CS) reduced the concentration in the medium more than 10% (10-16%). Twelve species were grown with linuron, seven of them were inefficient in removing this compound. The two strains of Sordaria macrospora yielded 22 to 25% depletion, while Botrytis cinerea depleted linuron almost completely. Among the 31 species assayed for their ability to eliminate metobromuron, Botrytis cinerea (from CS and NCS) depleted almost completely the chemical from the medium. Rhizopus oryzae and Absidia fusca from CS removed 40 and 47% of the compound, respectively. No systematic relationships were observed between the soil contamination and herbicide elimination capacities of soil fungi. Absidia fusca and Botrytis cinerea were particularly interesting for bioremediation purposes because they were able to transform efficiently three of the four compounds assayed.     

Sorption of polycyclic aromatic compounds to humic and fulvic acid HPLC column materials

Two different humic acids (HA) and a fulvic acid (FA) were chemically immobilized to a high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) silica column material. The immobilization was performed by binding amino groups in HA/FA to the free aldehyde group in glutardialdehyde attached to the silica gel. The HPLC column materials were compared with a blank column material made by applying the same procedure but without immobilizing HA or FA. Also, a column was made by binding carbonyl groups in HA to amino groups attached to the silica gel. The humic substances were selected to secure appropriate variation of their structural features. The retention factors of 45 polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAC) to the four columns were determined by HPLC. The advantage of the technique is a large number of compounds can easily be studied. The binding procedure does not appear to cause a drastic selection between the HA molecules. The k' values obtained for the two Aldrich HA columns agree in general reasonably. The retention or sorption of the compounds increased with the size of the PAC and the number of lipophilic substituents, but decreased when polar substituents were present. The PAC retention was much stronger to the two HA columns than to the FA and blank column, both for hydrophobic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and the polar PAC. Other factors impacting the PAC binding may be specific interactions with HA and the ionic strength of the aqueous phase. The technique has been applied to do direct determinations of Koc.     

Bioremediation of residual fertilizer nitrate: II. Soil redox potential and soluble iron as indicators of soil health during treatment

The prospect of using wastewater containing high loads of soluble organic matter (OM) for removing residual agricultural chemicals (fertilizer, pesticide, or herbicide) in farm soil, although promising, could have adverse effects on soil agricultural quality as a result of development of redoximorphic features in the soil profile. In this study, the effect of organic carbon supplement for bioremediation of residual fertilizer nitrate on soil properties, redox potential (Eh), pH, and metal ion mobilization was studied using sandy soils packed in columns. The study was included in a general project, described elsewhere (Ugwuegbu et al., 2000), undertaken to evaluate use of controlled water table management (WTM) systems to supply organic carbon for creating a reduced environment conducive to denitrification of residual fertilizer nitrate leaching from the farm to subsurface water. The columns were subjected to subirrigation with water containing soluble organic carbon in the form of glucose. The work was carried out in two experimental setups and the long-term effect of a range of glucose concentrations on the Eh, pH, and soluble levels of Fe and Mn was investigated. From the results obtained, it could be concluded that excessive organic carbon supplement to soil can have adverse effects on soil quality and that Eh and soluble Fe are the two most practical parameters for monitoring soil health during treatment of farm chemicals.     

Laboratory degradation studies of bentazone, dichlorprop, MCPA, and propiconazole in Norwegian soils

Laboratory degradation studies were performed in Norwegian soils using two commercial formulations (Tilt and Triagran-P) containing either propiconazole alone or a combination of bentazone, dichlorprop, and MCPA. These soils included a fine sandy loam from Hole and a loam from Kroer, both of which are representative of Norwegian agricultural soils. The third soil was a highly decomposed organic material from the Froland forest. A fourth soil from the Skuterud watershed was used only for propiconazole degradation. After 84 d, less than 0.1% of the initial MCPA concentration remained in all three selected soils. For dichlorprop, the same results were found for the fine sandy loam and the organic-rich soil, but in the loam, 26% of the initial concentration remained. After 84 d, less than 0.1% of the initial concentration of bentazone remained in the organic-rich soil, but in the loam and the fine sandy loam 52 and 69% remained, respectively. Propiconazole was shown to be different from the other pesticides by its persistence. Amounts of initial concentration remaining varied from 40, 70, and 82% in the reference soils after 84 d for the organic-rich soil, fine sandy loam, and loam, respectively. The organic-rich soil showed the highest capacity to decompose all four pesticides. The results from the agricultural soils and the Skuterud watershed showed that the persistence of propiconazole was high. Pesticide degradation was approximated to first-order kinetics. Slow rates of degradation, where more than 50% of the pesticide remained in the soil after the 84-d duration of the experiment, did not fit well with first-order kinetics.     

Vertical Distribution of Atmospheric Pollution Lead in Swedish Boreal Forest Soils

In order to understand the fate of anthropogenic lead (Pb)pollution in boreal forest soils, and to predict future trends, it is important to know where in the soil the pollution Pb is accumulated and how large the pollution and natural Pb inventories are in different soil horizons. We combined stable Pb isotope (²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁷Pb ratios) and concentration analyses to study Pb in podzol profiles and mor samples from old-growth forest stands at seven sites distributed from southern to northern Sweden. Additional samples were taken from managed forests, and from an agricultural field, to give some idea of the effects of land-use. Pb concentrations are typically 60–100 g g^-1 dry mass in the mor layer in southern Sweden and about 30 g g^-1 in northern Sweden. Pb isotope analyses show that virtually all of this Pb is pollution Pb. The isotope composition also shows that pollution Pb has penetrated downwards between 20–60 cm in the forest soils. The total pollution Pb inventories vary between 0.7–3.0 g m^-2 ground surface, with larger inventories in southern compared to northern Sweden. Although the highest Pb concentrations occur in the mor layer, the largest inventories of pollution Pb are found in the Bs-horizon. The limited investigation of Pb distribution and inventories in soils from managed forests did not point to any major difference compared to the old-growth forests. The agricultural field revealed, however, a completely deviating Pb profile with all pollution Pb evenly distributed in the 20 cm thick top-soil.     

Environmental indices in irrigation management

Irrigation management calls for objective criteria capable of representing the economy, reliability, and productivity of irrigation systems. These criteria must be compatible with long-term sustainability and conservation goals. The criteria representing the above goals are the economic effect of management on yield reduction, economic effect, and reliability referring to plant growth and operation of the network. In this study environmental indices are introduced to express the above criteria in quantitative terms. The inclusion of these indices at the farm and network level create a multicriteria framework for decision-making based on composite programming. An experimental study was conducted during the irrigation periods of 1989 and 1990 in Chania, Greece, concerning water delivered to 40 experimental plots, soil moisture content at the rootzone, and irrigation system operational failures. The data collected in real time were used for the calculation of the corresponding environmental indices. The variation in time and space is high and resulted in up to 62% of yield loss and low system performance (up to 7% of system temporal reliability). The study indicated that environmental indices could be incorporated to select alternatives and also to develop policies on water delivery. The final decision involves a trade-off analysis between cost of application and desired system performance. Measures of both primary objectives can be obtained using environmental indices that represent system operation aggregation at its basic levels (on farm and network).