Variance Design and Air Pollution Control

Confronted with shortages of low sulfur content residual fuel oil and, consequently, faced with the threat of social and economic upheaval, several air pollution control authorities in the Northeastern states were forced to relax hard-won air quality standards during the winter of 1972. The authorities did so by granting variances to their sulfur content standards for residual fuel oil. This paper examines the institutional characteristics of these variance policies from an economic incentive standpoint. After setting up desirable structural criteria for institutional design of such crisis policies, the authors examine the experience of the winter of 1972 and arrive at policy guidelines which recommend themselves for consideration in future periods of fuel oil shortages.     

Tree and Shrub Expansion Over the Past 34 Years at the Tree-Line Near Abisko,Sweden

Shrubs and trees are expected to expand in the sub-Arctic due to global warming. Our study was conducted in Abisko, sub-arctic Sweden. We recorded the change in coverage of shrub and tree species over a 32– to 34-year period, in three 50 × 50 m plots; in the alpine-tree-line ecotone. The cover of shrubs and trees (<3.5 cm diameter at breast height) were estimated during 2009–2010 and compared with historical documentation from 1976 to 1977. Similarly, all tree stems (≥3.5 cm) were noted and positions determined. There has been a substantial increase of cover of shrubs and trees, particularly dwarf birch (Betula nana), and mountain birch (Betula pubescens ssp. czerepanovii), and an establishment of aspen (Populus tremula). The other species willows (Salix spp.), juniper (Juniperus communis), and rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) revealed inconsistent changes among the plots. Although this study was unable to identify the causes for the change in shrubs and small trees, they are consistent with anticipated changes due to climate change and reduced herbivory.     

Changes in Tree Growth,Biomass and Vegetation Over a 13-Year Period in the Swedish Sub-Arctic

This study was conducted in the Swedish sub-Arctic, near Abisko, in order to assess the direction and scale of possible vegetation changes in the alpine–birch forest ecotone. We have re-surveyed shrub, tree and vegetation data at 549 plots grouped into 61 clusters. The plots were originally surveyed in 1997 and re-surveyed in 2010. Our study is unique for the area as we have quantitatively estimated a 19% increase in tree biomass mainly within the existing birch forest. We also found significant increases in the cover of two vegetation types—“birch forest-heath with mosses” and “meadow with low herbs”, while the cover of snowbed vegetation decreased significantly. The vegetation changes might be caused by climate, herbivory and past human impact but irrespective of the causes, the observed transition of the vegetation will have substantial effects on the mountain ecosystems.     

Combustion-derived substances in deep basins of Puget Sound: historical inputs from fossil fuel and biomass combustion

Reconstructions of 250 years historical inputs of two distinct types of black carbon (soot/graphitic black carbon (GBC) and char-BC) were conducted on sediment cores from two basins of the Puget Sound, WA. Signatures of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were also used to support the historical reconstructions of BC to this system. Down-core maxima in GBC and combustion-derived PAHs occurred in the 1940s in the cores from the Puget Sound Main Basin, whereas in Hood Canal such peak was observed in the 1970s, showing basin-specific differences in inputs of combustion byproducts. This system showed relatively higher inputs from softwood combustion than the northeastern U.S. The historical variations in char-BC concentrations were consistent with shifts in climate indices, suggesting an influence of climate oscillations on wildfire events. Environmental loading of combustion byproducts thus appears as a complex function of urbanization, fuel usage, combustion technology, environmental policies, and climate conditions.     

Demonstrations of coal-fired oxy-fuel technology for carbon capture and storage and issues with commercial deployment

As one of the three major carbon capture technologies associated with carbon capture and storage (CCS), oxy-fuel technology is currently undergoing rapid development with a number of international demonstration projects of scale 10–30 MW_e having commenced and units with a scale of 250–300 MW_e emerging in the progression towards commercialisation. Industrial scale testing of coal combustion and burners is also being conducted by technology vendors.The paper details the current international status of the technology; the contributions of current demonstrations; and a roadmap for commercial deployment.At its current state of maturity oxy-fuel technology may be considered semi-commercial, in that even if a unit was economically viable and could be provided by a vendor, the generator and vendor would need to share the technical risk. This is because guarantees could not at present be provided for operating characteristics associated with mature technologies such as reliability, emissions, ramp rate and spray control. This is due to the maturity of the technology associated with the capability of vendors and associated design and operational uncertainties, associated with a lack of plant experience at scale.The projected development of oxy-fuel technology for first-generation plant is provided, using an ASU for oxygen supply, standard furnace designs with externally recirculated flue gas, and limited thermal integration of the ASU and compression plant with the power plant. Potential features of second generation technology are listed.Listed issues delaying deployment indicate that market, economic, legal and issues of public acceptance are more significant than technical barriers.     

Occupational stress: Coping of police and their spouses

One hundred seventy-seven police officers and their spouses from two metropolitan areas completed separate questionnaires regarding stress and coping. Both the police and spouses reported using four coping activities in response to their own stressors: problem focused, emotion focused, religiosity, and rugged individualism. Three potential police strains previously noted in non-empirical literature were given special attention; divorce potential, drinking behavior, and suicide thoughts.     

Is motion more important than it sounds?: The medium of presentation in environment perception research

This study assessed the incremental validity of different media for representing landscapes with significant dynamic elements. The experimental design independently varied the presence of motion and sound in different representations of a wild and scenic river in order to evaluate the adequacy or sufficiency of the surrogate to reflect physical changes in the landscape. Three representational conditions were identified: (1) video/sound, (2) video/no sound, and (3) static/no sound. A pilot study assessed the ability of the static images to represent river flow levels per se, and confirmed comparability with prior results (Brown & Daniel, 1989, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 7, 233–250). Scenic beauty judgments were then collected within each representational condition. Multiple regression analyses were used to determine the relationship of flow level to perceived scenic beauty for each representation condition. The results demonstrated that motion and sound, individually and conjointly, influenced judgements of scenic beauty for a landscape with a significant dynamic element.     

Perceived intra-organizational mobility: Reliable versus exceptional performance as means to getting ahead

‘Work hard and get ahead’ is a fundamental tenet of modern organizations, but employees have different interpretations of what it means to ‘work hard’ and perceive that there are multiple channels to ‘get ahead’. The current research explores employees' perceptions of the factors affecting their intra-organizational upward mobility. Results using a survey instrument in a large American medical college show that employees can distinguish among intra-organizational mobility channels based on reliable role performance, on exceptional role performance, and on non-performance factors such as personal characteristics (e.g. race and gender), or luck and favoritism. Perceptions of mobility channels are related to such organizationally relevant outcomes as employee satisfaction and turnover intentions. Occupational sub-groups, however, perceive different structures for upward mobility.     

Overexpression of ATP sulfurylase in Indian mustard: effects on tolerance and accumulation of twelve metals

Indian mustard [Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.] transgenics overexpressing ATP sulfurylase (APS plants) were shown previously to have higher levels of total thiols, S, and Se. The present study explores the effect of ATP sulfurylase overexpression on tolerance and accumulation of other metals, both oxyanions and cations, reasoning that some anions may react directly with ATP sulfurylase, while other ions may be bound by its thiol end products. The APS transgenics were compared with wild-type plants with respect to tolerance and accumulation of As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, V, W, and Zn, supplied individually in agar medium (seedlings) or in hydroponics (mature plants). At the seedling stage, APS transgenics were more tolerant than wild type to As(III), As(V), Cd, Cu, Hg, and Zn, but less tolerant to Mo and V. The APS seedlings had up to 2.5-fold higher shoot concentrations of As(III), As(V), Hg, Mo, Pb, and V, and somewhat lower Cr levels. Mature APS plants contained up to 2.5-fold higher shoot concentrations of Cd, Cr, Cu, Mo, V, and W than wild type. They also contained 1.5- to 2-fold higher levels of the essential elements Fe, Mo, and S in most of the treatments. Mature APS plants showed no differences in metal tolerance compared with the wild type. Overexpression of ATP sulfurylase may be a promising approach to create plants with enhanced phytoextraction capacity for mixtures of metals.     

Uncertainties and recommendations

An assessment of the impacts of changes in climate and UV-B radiation on Arctic terrestrial ecosystems, made within the Arctic Climate Impacts Assessment (ACIA), highlighted the profound implications of projected warming in particular for future ecosystem services, biodiversity and feedbacks to climate. However, although our current understanding of ecological processes and changes driven by climate and UV-B is strong in some geographical areas and in some disciplines, it is weak in others. Even though recently the strength of our predictions has increased dramatically with increased research effort in the Arctic and the introduction of new technologies, our current understanding is still constrained by various uncertainties. The assessment is based on a range of approaches that each have uncertainties, and on data sets that are often far from complete. Uncertainties arise from methodologies and conceptual frameworks, from unpredictable surprises, from lack of validation of models, and from the use of particular scenarios, rather than predictions, of future greenhouse gas emissions and climates. Recommendations to reduce the uncertainties are wide-ranging and relate to all disciplines within the assessment. However, a repeated theme is the critical importance of achieving an adequate spatial and long-term coverage of experiments, observations and monitoring of environmental changes and their impacts throughout the sparsely populated and remote region that is the Arctic.