Learning and the transformative potential of citizen science

The number of collaborative initiatives between scientists and volunteers (i.e., citizen science) is increasing across many research fields. The promise of societal transformation together with scientific breakthroughs contributes to the current popularity of citizen science (CS) in the policy domain. We examined the transformative capacity of citizen science in particular learning through environmental CS as conservation tool. We reviewed the CS and social‐learning literature and examined 14 conservation projects across Europe that involved collaborative CS. We also developed a template that can be used to explore learning arrangements (i.e., learning events and materials) in CS projects and to explain how the desired outcomes can be achieved through CS learning. We found that recent studies aiming to define CS for analytical purposes often fail to improve the conceptual clarity of CS; CS programs may have transformative potential, especially for the development of individual skills, but such transformation is not necessarily occurring at the organizational and institutional levels; empirical evidence on simple learning outcomes, but the assertion of transformative effects of CS learning is often based on assumptions rather than empirical observation; and it is unanimous that learning in CS is considered important, but in practice it often goes unreported or unevaluated. In conclusion, we point to the need for reliable and transparent measurement of transformative effects for democratization of knowledge production.     

Visualization and quantification of transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) in freshwater using an auto-imaging approach

Most water sources are full of microscopic transparent exopolymer particles (TEP), which are currently regarded as a major initiator of biofilm formation. This study developed and applied an auto-imaging FlowCAM-based method for online observation and quantification of TEP in freshwater. Samples from reservoirs in Taiwan with a wide range of water quality were directly used to develop this methodology. Factors that potentially affect the measurement were tested. The results showed that characteristics of the particles measured instantaneously after staining samples with Alcian blue differed significantly from those measured at steady states, as a result of particle aggregation. Compared to traditional microscopic methods, this proposed method provides a simple, rapid, and less labor-intensive analysis with particle morphological conservation and a large number of particle attributes. By overcoming the limitations from the former, this technique would offer routine monitoring of these transparent particles from various freshwater sources and feed water in membrane filtration, hence facilitating the use of TEP as a critical parameter for biofouling investigation in water treatment. Application of the method for Taiwan reservoirs showed a wide variety of morphological forms of TEP and its abundance, up to 25,000 ppm.     

Parentage analyses suggest female promiscuity and a disadvantage for athletic males in the colour-polymorphic lizard Podarcis melisellensis

Although laboratory measurements of whole-animal performance have become a standard tool in evolutionary biology, if and how interindividual variation in performance translates into differential fitness remains poorly understood. Particularly rare are studies that have connected performance to mating and reproductive success in the field. In this study, we use DNA microsatellite parentage analyses to study the fitness gradient in a colour-polymorphic lizard, Podarcis melisellensis. We report on two surprising findings. First, contrary to our expectations, individual sprint speed and bite force capacity correlated negatively, not positively, with male mating and reproductive success. Second, we found an unexpected degree of promiscuity in females. Also, contrary to traditional parental investment theory, the variation in mating success and reproductive success was as high in females as in males. Our results call for a better integration of whole-animal performance and life history traits, and for a reconsideration of the ideas on the likeliness of sexual selection acting on female phenotypes.     

Vocalizations by Alaskan moose: female incitation of male aggression

Evidence of female fomentation of male–male aggression as a mechanism of mate choice is rare, especially in mammals. Female choice of mates in polygynous species may be masked by intense male competition or by males attempting to restrict female choice. We studied protest moans of female Alaskan moose Alces alces gigas in interior Alaska, USA, from 1987 to 1990, to determine if moans incited male–male aggression. Alaskan moose exhibit a mating system in which one dominant male (the harem master) herds, defends, courts, and attempts to mate with females in his harem. Protest moans were given by females only in response to courtship. We hypothesized that if protest moans were related to females reducing harassment and exercising mate choice, females should give protest moans more frequently when courted by small males and less often when courted by large males, and that rates of male–male aggression would be elevated following protest moans. Harems were composed of one large male, with a mean of 4.4 females (median = 3 females); 10% of 132 harems included ≥10 females. The temporal pattern of protest moans from late August through November was associated with, but tended to lag behind, mating behavior. The rate of protest moans given by females decreased with increasing size of males courting them. Male–male aggression was significantly less during periods without protest moans than during periods in which protest moans occurred. These results indicate that female moose gave protest moans to reduce harassment by smaller males, and assure a mating opportunity with the most dominant male. Such a subtle mechanism of indirect mate choice by females may occur in other vertebrates in which choice is limited by a mating system in which male–male combat and male dominance over females reduces opportunities for female choice. The importance of female choice may be undervalued in studies of sexual selection in mammals.     

Multivariate analysis for spatial distribution of dissolved organic matters in a large river-type dam reservoir

In contrast to extensive studies of dissolved organic matters (DOM) in natural lakes, the distributions and the characteristics of DOM in artificial dam reservoirs have not been well documented despite a growing demand for the construction worldwide. For this study, spatial variations in the concentrations and the characteristics of DOM in Lake Paldang, a large river-type dam reservoir, were investigated using the concentrations, the specific UV absorbance (SUVA), the synchronous fluorescence spectra and the molecular weight (MW(w)) values. In addition, environmental factors determining the DOM spatial distribution were examined based on a principal component analysis (PCA). Variations in the DOM characteristics were greater than those for the concentrations (1.1-2.4 mg C/L). In contrast to typical lakes, vertical variations with a depth were much smaller than those observed among horizontal sampling sites within the reservoir. Irrespective of the depth, four individual sampling locations were easily distinguished by comparison of some selected DOM characteristics. The protein-like fluorescence (PLF), MW(w) and SUVA values observed at the location near the dam exceeded the corresponding values for the sampling locations near major influent rivers, suggesting that, even for the river-type dam reservoir, the downstream DOM characteristics may be governed by in-lake DOM production processes such as the release from sediments and algal activities. The results of principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that approximately 61% of the variance in DOM distribution might be explained by allochthonous/autochthonous carbon sources and predominant presence of either total nitrogen or total phosphorous over the other.     

Sampling approaches to predict urban street noise levels using fixed and temporary microphones

Requirements for static (prediction of L(den) and diurnal averaged noise pattern) and dynamic (prediction of 15 min and 60 min evolution of L(Aeq) and statistical levels L(A90,)L(A50) and L(A10)) noise level monitoring are investigated in this paper. Noise levels are measured for 72 consecutive days at 5 neighboring streets in an inner-city noise measurement network in Gent, Flanders, Belgium. We present a method to make predictions based on a fixed monitoring station, combined with short-term sampling at temporary stations. It is shown that relying on a fixed station improves the estimation of L(den) at other locations, and allows for the reduction of the number of samples needed and their duration; L(den) is estimated with an error that does not exceed 1.5 dB(A) to 3.4 dB(A) according to the location, for 90% of the 3 × 15 min samples. Also the diurnal averaged noise pattern can be estimated with a good accuracy in this way. It was shown that there is an optimal location for the fixed station which can be found by short-term measurements only. Short-term level predictions were shown to be more difficult; 7 day samples were needed to build models able to estimate the evolution of L(Aeq,60min) with a RMSE ranging between 1.4 dB(A) and 3.7 dB(A). These higher values can be explained by the very pronounced short-term variations appearing in typical streets, which are not correlated between locations. On the other hand, moderately accurate predictions can be achieved, even based on short-term sampling (a 3 × 15 minute sampling duration seems to be sufficient for many of the accuracy goals set related to static and dynamic monitoring). Finally, the method proposed also allows for the prediction of the evolution of statistical indicators.     

Development of Spatial and Temporal Emission Inventory for Crop Residue Field Burning

Accurate emission inventory (EI) is the foremost requirement for air quality management. Specifically, air quality modeling requires EI with adequate spatial and temporal distributions. The development of such EI is always challenging, especially for sporadic emission sources such as biomass open burning. The country of Thailand produces a large amount of various crops annually, of which rough (unmilled) rice alone accounted for over 30 million tonnes in 2007. The crop residues are normally burned in the field that generates large emissions of air pollutants and climate forcers. We present here an attempt at a multipollutant EI for crop residue field burning in Thailand. Available country-specific and regional primary data were thoroughly scrutinized to select the most realistic values for the best, low and high emission estimates. In the base year of 2007, the best emission estimates in Gigagrams were as follows: particulate matter as PM_2.5, 128; particulate matter as PM₁₀, 143; sulfur dioxide (SO₂), 4; carbon dioxide (CO₂), 21,400; carbon monoxide (CO), 1,453; oxides of nitrogen (NO_x), 42; ammonia (NH₃), 59; methane (CH₄), 132; non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC), 108; elemental carbon (EC), 10; and organic carbon (OC), 54. Rice straw burning was by far the largest contributor to the total emissions, especially during the dry season and in the central part of the country. Only a limited number of EIs for crop residue open burning were reported for Thailand but with significant discrepancies. Our best estimates were comparable but generally higher than other studies. Analysis for emission uncertainty, taking into account possible variations in activity data and emission factors, shows considerable gaps between low and high estimates. The difference between the low and high EI estimates for particulate matter and for particulate EC and OC varied between −80% and +80% while those for CO₂ and CO varied between −60% and +230%. Further, the crop production data of Thailand were used as a proxy to disaggregate the emissions to obtain spatial (76 provinces) and temporal (monthly) distribution. The provincial emissions were also disaggregated on a 0.1° × 0.1° grid net and to hourly profiles that can be directly used for dispersion modeling.     

On the ability of consumer electronics microphones for environmental noise monitoring

The massive production of microphones for consumer electronics, and the shift from dedicated processing hardware to PC-based systems, opens the way to build affordable, extensive noise measurement networks. Applications include e.g. noise limit and urban soundscape monitoring, and validation of calculated noise maps. Microphones are the critical components of such a network. Therefore, in a first step, some basic characteristics of 8 microphones, distributed over a wide range of price classes, were measured in a standardized way in an anechoic chamber. In a next step, a thorough evaluation was made of the ability of these microphones to be used for environmental noise monitoring. This was done during a continuous, half-year lasting outdoor experiment, characterized by a wide variety of meteorological conditions. While some microphones failed during the course of this test, it was shown that it is possible to identify cheap microphones that highly correlate to the reference microphone during the full test period. When the deviations are expressed in total A-weighted (road traffic) noise levels, values of less than 1 dBA are obtained, in excess to the deviation amongst reference microphones themselves.     

Scaled-up bioconversion of fish waste to liquid fertilizer using a 5 L ribbon-type reactor

A scaled-up conversion process of fish waste to liquid fertilizer was performed in a 5 L ribbon-type reactor. Biodegradation was performed by inoculation of autoclaved fish waste with 5.84 × 10(5) CFU mL(-1) of mixed microorganisms for 96 h. As a result, the pH changed from 6.92 to 5.72, the cell number reached 7.28 × 10(5) CFU mL(-1), and approximately 430 g (28.3%) of fish waste was degraded. Analyses indicated that the 96 h culture of inoculated fish waste possessed comparable fertilizing ability to commercial fertilizers in hydroponic culture with amino acid contents of 6.91 g 100 g(-1). Therefore, the scaled-up production achieved a more satisfactory fish waste degradation rate (3.61 g h(-1)) than the flask-scale production (0.24 g h(-1)). The biodegraded broth of fish waste at room temperature did not undergo putrefaction for 6 months due to the addition of 1% lactate.