A new THOR shoulder design: a comparison with volunteers, the Hybrid III, and THOR NT

OBJECTIVE: Since the shoulders are rarely seriously injured in frontal or oblique collisions, they have been given low priority in the development of frontal impact crash test dummies. The shoulder complex geometry and its kinematics are of vital importance for the overall dummy kinematics. The shoulder complex also influences the risk of the safety belt slipping off the shoulder in oblique forward collisions. The first aim of this study was to develop a new 50th percentile male THOR shoulder design, while the second was to compare the new shoulder, mounted on a THOR NT dummy, with volunteer, THOR NT, and Hybrid III range of motion and stiffness data. The third aim was to test the repeatability of the new shoulder during dynamic testing and to see how the design behaves with respect to belt slippage in a 45 degrees far-side collision. METHODS: The new 50th percentile THOR shoulder design was developed with the aid of a shell model of the seated University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute (UMTRI) 50th percentile male with coordinates for joints and bony landmarks (Schneider et al., 1983). The new shoulder design has human-like bony landmarks for the acromion and coracoid processes. The clavicle curvature and length are also made similar to that of a male human, as is the range of motion in the anterior-posterior, superior-inferior, and medial-lateral directions. The new shoulder design was manufactured and tested under the same conditions that T?rnvall et al. (2005b) used to compare the shoulder range of motion for the volunteers, Hybrid III, and THOR Alpha. The new design was also tested in two dynamic test configurations: the first was a 0 degrees full-frontal test and the second was a 45 degrees far-side test. The dummy tests were conducted with an R-16 seat with a three-point belt, the Delta V was 27.0+/-0.5 km/h and the maximum peak acceleration was approximately 14.6+/-0.5 g for each test. RESULTS: A new shoulder design with geometry close to that of humans was developed to be retrofitted to the THOR NT dummy. The results showed that the range of motion for the new shoulder complex during static loading was larger by at least a factor of three, for the maximum load (200 N/arm), than that of either the Hybrid III or the THOR NT; this means it was more similar to the volunteers' range of motion. It was observed that the THOR NT with the new shoulder did not slide out of the shoulder belt during a far-side collision. The performance of the new shoulder was reasonably repeatable and stable during both the static tests and the sled tests. CONCLUSION: A new shoulder for the THOR NT has been designed and developed, and data from static range of motion tests and sled tests indicate that the new shoulder complex has the potential to function in a more human-like manner on the THOR dummy.     

Choice of teenagers' vehicles and views on vehicle safety: survey of parents of novice teenage drivers

Objective

To examine parental decisions about vehicles driven by teenagers and parental knowledge of vehicle safety.

Methods

About 300 parents were interviewed during spring 2006 in Minnesota, North Carolina, and Rhode Island while teenagers took their first on-road driving tests.

Results

Fewer than half of parents surveyed said teenagers would be the primary drivers of the chosen vehicles. Parents most often cited safety, existing family vehicle, and reliability when explaining the choices for their teenagers’ vehicles. About half of the vehicles intended for teenagers were small/mini/sports cars, pickups, or SUVs — vehicles considered less safe for teenagers than midsize/large cars or minivans. A large majority of vehicles were 2001 models or earlier. Vehicles purchased in anticipation of adding a new driver to the family were more likely to be the sizes/types considered less safe than vehicles already owned. Few parents insisted on side airbags or electronic stability control, despite strong evidence of their safety benefits. Even when asked to identify ideal vehicles for their teenagers to drive, about half of parents identified less safe vehicle sizes/types. Most parents knew that midsize/large vehicles are safer than small vehicles, and at least half of parents said SUVs and pickups are not safe for teenage drivers, citing instability.

Conclusions

The majority of parents understood some of the important criteria for choosing safe vehicles for their teenagers. However, parents actually selected many vehicles for teenagers that provide inferior crash protection.

Impact on industry

Vehicle safety varies substantially by vehicle size, type, and safety features. Many teenagers are driving inferior vehicles in terms of crashworthiness and crash avoidance.     

Cranial shape transformation in the evolution of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca)

In this study, landmark-based methods of geometric morphometrics are used for investigating the main aspects of cranial shape transformation in the evolution of the giant panda, Ailuropoda melanoleuca. Specifically, we explore if the highly derived cranial adaptations for bamboo feeding of the living panda were developed early in the panda's lineage. Results obtained show that the overall cranial morphologies of the oldest known panda, the "pygmy" Ailuropoda microta, and the late Pleistocene Ailuropoda baconi are both very similar to that of their closest living relative, A. melanoleuca, which agrees with a previous proposal based on qualitative criteria. However, we also describe several differences between the crania of A. microta, A. baconi, and A. melanoleuca, including the development of the postorbital process, the orientation of the occipital region, and the expansion of the braincase. As a result, the cranial morphology of A. microta shows a less specialized morphology toward a fibrous and durophagous diet compared to the giant panda. These results are confirmed by a comparative analysis of the dimensions of the upper teeth in bears, which has revealed differences in relative tooth size between A. microta and A. melanoleuca, most probably as a result of mosaic evolution. Therefore, we conclude that cranial shape did not remain essentially uniform in the Ailuropoda lineage, as previously thought, but underwent a number of changes during more than 2?Myr.     

ISO 14001 certification and financial performance: selection-effect versus treatment-effect

The paper explores the bi-directional relationship between ISO 14001 certification and financial performance with the aim of shedding light on whether better performance is due to the beneficial effects of ISO 14001 or due to selection-effects where better performance precedes accreditation. The study uses a five year longitudinal analysis to compare the financial performance of firms in Spain before and after certification. The results of a multivariate panel data analysis find that firms with better than average performance have a greater propensity to pursue accreditation but there is no evidence that improvements in performance follow certification. This suggests that the inference that environmental variables cause improved financial performance may be unwise in research studies that can only measure association.     

Ash deposition impact on the energy performance of photovoltaic generators

A little known side effect of the atmospheric air pollution is the degradation of photovoltaic (PV) cells’ performance due to the deposition of solid particles varying in composition, size and origin. In this context, an experimental-based investigation is conducted in order to compare the energy performance of two identical pairs of PV-panels; the first being clean and the second being artificially polluted with ash, i.e. a by-product of incomplete hydrocarbons’ combustion mainly originating from thermal power stations and vehicular exhausts. A series of systematic measurements of current intensity, voltage output and solar radiation are executed simultaneously for the clean and the polluted PV-panel, so that the effect of several mass depositions on the PVs’ power output, energy yield and conversion efficiency may be determined. According to the results, a considerable deterioration of the PV-panels’ performance is obtained, i.e. almost 30% energy reduction per hour or 1.5% efficiency decrease (in absolute terms) for ash accumulation on the panels’ surface reaching up to 0.4 mg/cm².     

Health implications of radon distribution in living rooms and bedrooms in U.K. dwellings--a case study in Northamptonshire

Environmental radon exposure of residents of domestic premises in the United Kingdom (UK) and elsewhere in Europe is estimated on the basis of the measured radon concentrations in, and the relative occupancies of, the principal living room and bedroom. While studies on radon concentration variability in the individual units in apartment blocks in various countries have been described, little data has been reported on variability in two-storey single-family dwellings, and the majority of extant studies consolidate living room and bedroom data early in the analysis. To investigate this further, detailed analysis was made of radon concentration data from a set of thirty-four homes situated in areas of Northamptonshire known to exhibit high radon levels. All homes were of typical UK construction of brick/block/stone walls under a pitched tile/slate roof. Approximately 50% of the sample were detached houses, the remainder being semi-detached (duplex) or terraced (row-house). Around 25% of the sample possessed cellars, while 12% were single-storey dwellings (bungalows), reflecting the typical incidence of this type of dwelling in England. In the two-storey homes, all monitored bedrooms were on the upper floor. Distribution of the ratios of bedroom/living room radon concentrations (BR/LR ratio) in individual properties was left-skewed (mean 0.67, median 0.73, range 0.05-1.05) with a tail extending to just above 1.0. The mean is consistent with the outcome of earlier extensive studies in England, while the variability depends principally on the characteristics of the property, and not on seasonal factors. In a small set of homes, the BR/LR ratio was anomalously low, (mean 0.3). BR/LR ratios in single-storey homes clustered around a value of 1.0, indicating that house design, rather than lifestyle, is the dominant factor in determining bedroom radon concentrations. Homes with higher mean annual radon concentrations showed lower BR/LR ratios, supporting our proposal that, in some homes, radon emanation from building materials may comprise a significant component of the overall radon level.     

Activity ratios of 137Cs, 90Sr and 239+240Pu in environmental samples

Both global and Chernobyl fallout have resulted in environmental contamination with radionuclides such as 137Cs, 90Sr and 239+240Pu. In environmental samples, 137Cs and 239+240Pu can be divided into the contributions of either source, if also the isotopes 134Cs and 238Pu are measurable, based on the known isotopic ratios in global and Chernobyl fallout. No analogous method is available for 90Sr. The activity ratios of Sr to Cs and Pu, respectively, are known for the actual fallout mainly from air filter measurements; but due to the high mobility of Sr in the environment, compared to Cs and Pu, these ratios generally do not hold for the inventory many years after deposition. In this paper we suggest a method to identify the mean contributions of global and Chernobyl fallout to total Sr in soil, sediment and cryoconite samples from Alpine and pre-Alpine regions of Austria, based on a statistical evaluation of Sr/Cs/Pu radionuclide activity ratios. Results are given for Sr:Cs, Sr:Pu and Cs:Pu ratios. Comparison with fallout data shows a strong depletion of Sr against Cs and Pu.     

Trends in the spatial and temporal distribution of 129I and 99Tc in coastal waters surrounding Ireland using Fucus vesiculosus as a bio-indicator

Spatial and temporal trends in (129)I and (99)Tc concentrations around the Irish coastline have been evaluated using Fucus vesiculosus as a bio-indicator. (129)I concentrations in a recent set of seawater samples have also been recorded and reveal an identical spatial pattern. Concentrations of (129)I in Fucus from the northeast coast of Ireland proved to be at least two orders of magnitude higher than concentrations in Fucus from the west coast. The (129)I content of Fucus increased significantly between 1985 and 2003, in line with increases in discharges of (129)I from the Sellafield nuclear reprocessing plant. Similar trends were observed in the case of (99)Tc. (129)I/(99)Tc ratios in Irish seawater were deduced from the Fucus data, and compared to ratios in discharges from Sellafield and from the French reprocessing plant at Cap de la Hague. Levels of (129)I and (99)Tc in Fucus from the west coast were found to be enhanced with respect to levels in seaweeds from other regions in the Northern Hemisphere unaffected by discharges from nuclear installations such as those referred to.     

Radiocesium in caribou and reindeer in northern Canada, Alaska and Greenland from 1958 to 2000

This study summarizes the spatial and temporal trends of fallout (137)Cs concentrations in caribou and reindeer (Rangifer tarandus ssp.), reported in various programs in Canada, Alaska and Greenland, over a 40-y period. During the 1960s, the highest (137)Cs concentrations (2000-3000Bqkg(-1) wet weight in muscle) were found in the large caribou herds of central northern Canada, with levels about 50% lower in Alaska and Greenland. Concentrations varied by up to a factor of 6 between spring and fall. Concentrations in reindeer were comparable to those in caribou from the same regions. The highest (137)Cs concentrations (750Bqkg(-1)) in the late 1980s were found in the Caniapiscau herd of central Québec. The contribution from the Chernobyl accident in 1986 was estimated from (134)Cs measurements to be 10-40% of the total (137)Cs. Present concentrations have declined to 200-300Bqkg(-1). The effective half-life (T(eff)) of (137)Cs in Canadian caribou herds was estimated to be about 6 y. The potential impact on the health of northern residents is discussed.     

Trace element levels in foetus-mother pairs of short-beaked common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) stranded along the French coasts

Tissues of foetus-mother pairs of common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) stranded along the French coasts (Bay of Biscay and English Channel) were analysed for their Cd, Cu, Hg, Se and Zn contents. In the kidneys, foetal Cd levels were extremely low, and strong relationships between Cu and Zn suggested the involvement of metallothioneins since early foetal life. The results also indicated a limited maternal transfer of Hg during pregnancy since levels in the tissues of foetuses were below 1 microg g(-1) w.wt. However, hepatic Hg levels in foetuses increased with body length, and were also proportionate to maternal hepatic, renal and muscular Hg levels. Lastly, affinities between Hg and Se in tissues would participate in Hg neutralisation in both mothers--through tiemannite granules--and fetuses--through reduced glutathione--counteracting the toxic effects linked to the particularly high quantities of methyl-Hg to which marine mammals are naturally exposed.