Seasonal variation in the diversity and abundance of pelagic larvae of Antarctic marine invertebrates

Most marine benthic macroinvertebrate species reproduce via a larval phase but attempts to explain the occurrence of different larval strategies (feeding or non-feeding, pelagic or benthic) in different habitats have been largely inconclusive. There have been very few year-round surveys of meroplankton at any latitude and in consequence fundamental data on the diversity, abundance, and timings of larval life history phases are lacking. There has been considerable debate regarding the viability of pelagic larvae in cold waters with highly seasonal primary production but there has been only one year-round study of meroplankton in the Southern Ocean, and that was outside of the Antarctic Circle. We present data from the first year-round survey of meroplankton assemblages at a location within the Antarctic Circle. We surveyed abundances of meroplanktonic larvae over 1.5 year at Rothera Point, West Antarctic Peninsula (67°34′S, 68°07′W). Larvae were collected in monthly diver-towed net samples close to the seabed at 20 and 6 m total water depths at each of three locations and were identified and counted live immediately after sampling. A total of 99 operationally defined taxonomic types representing 11 phyla were recorded but this is likely to be an underestimate of true diversity because of inherent difficulties of identification. Larvae were present in all months of the year and although planktotrophic larvae were more abundant in summer, both feeding and non-feeding types were present in all months. Comparisons of seasonal larval abundances with data from a settlement study at the same sites and from the literature show that larvae of mobile adults settle in summer regardless of developmental type, whereas sessile taxa settle in all seasons. We suggest that this is a consequence of differences in the food requirements of mobile and sessile fauna and that the availability of food for post-larval juveniles is more critical for survival than factors affecting the larval stage itself.     

Feeding on intertidal microbial mats by postlarval tiger shrimp, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Penaeus semisulcatus</Emphasis> De Haan

A series of experiments investigated the potential role of microbial mats in nutrition of the early settlement stages of Penaeus semisulcatus. From 3 days post-metamorphosis, the microbial mat supported high growth and survival rates in postlarvae, equivalent to that supported by a control diet of Artemia nauplii and mussel. Examination of gut contents indicated that benthic postlarvae feed indiscriminately on the microbial mat. However, when postlarvae were fed separated size-fractions of the microbial mat, only the fraction containing a high concentration of infauna (mainly nematodes) was able to support the same growth as intact microbial mat. This appears to be due to the low nitrogen content (0.4–0.9 mmol g⁻¹) of the various size-fractions, compared to that of infauna (4.0 mmol g⁻¹). The stable isotope composition of the dietary size-fractions and postlarval shrimp tissue supports the hypothesis that the shrimp assimilated C and N primarily from the associated infauna. This may be due to selective feeding that is not apparent from stomach contents, due to rapid digestion of fauna soft tissues, or to differential assimilation of infaunal prey relative to other microbial mat components. The results demonstrate that microbial mats may support survival and growth in early-stage penaeid shrimp postlarvae on intertidal mud flats.     

Genetic diversity and population structure of the Chinese mitten crab <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eriocheir sinensis</Emphasis> in its native range

The Chinese mitten crab Eriocheir sinensis is an indigenous and economically important species in China, but can also be found as invasive species in Europe and America. Mitten crabs have been exploited extensively as a food resource since the 1990s. Despite its ecological and economic importance, the genetic structure of native mitten crab populations is not well understood. In this paper, we investigated the genetic structure of mitten crab populations in China by screening samples from ten locations covering six river systems at six microsatellite loci. Our results provide further evidence that mitten crabs from the River Nanliujiang in Southern China are a genetically differentiated population within the native range of Eriocheir, and should be recognized as a separate taxonomic unit. In contrast, extremely low levels of genetic differentiation and no significant geographic population structure were found among the samples located north of the River Nanliujiang. Based on the reproductive biology of mitten crabs and the geography of their habitat we argue that both natural and human-mediated gene flow are unlikely to fully account for the similar allele frequency distributions at microsatellite loci. Large population sizes of mitten crabs suggest instead that a virtual absence of genetic drift and significant homoplasy of microsatellite alleles have contributed to the observed pattern. Furthermore, a coalescent-based maximum likelihood method indicated a more than two-fold lower effective population size of the Southern population compared to the Northern Group and low but significant levels of gene flow between both areas.     

Shelter preference in captive juveniles of European spiny lobster <Emphasis Type="Italic">Palinurus elephas</Emphasis> (Fabricius, 1787)

Physical shelter features (e.g. shape, size and substrate slope) were tested in the laboratory to evaluate the preferences of juveniles of European spiny lobster, Palinurus elephas. Tethering experiments to assess whether substrate slope affects the vulnerability of juveniles to predation were also performed. Our results showed that: (1) semi-circular dens were significantly preferred over square and circular shapes; (2) when not disturbed by a predator, lobsters sheltered in holes with a diameter closely related to their own size, while in the presence of a potential predator lobsters showed no significant preference for a particular shelter size; (3) lobsters significantly preferred dens excavated on sub-vertical (35°) substrates over those excavated on vertical ones (90°); (4) individual lobsters tethered on vertical substrates were subject to greater predation activity than those tethered on horizontal structures. In conclusion, the present study contributes to the understanding of how physical properties of shelters affect the choice of P. elephas juveniles, enhancing their protection and survival rate.     

Intertidal slope of coral sand beach as a unique habitat for fish: meiobenthic diet of the transparent sand dart, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Kraemeria cunicularia</Emphasis> (Gobiidae)

Coral sand beaches harbor gobiid sand darts (genus Kraemeria), the only fish known to live in the sand throughout their adult life. Despite the uniqueness of sand-dwelling habitat as a vertebrate, the biology of this fish remains unclear. To explore how this unique fish utilize an unusual habitat, we investigated diurnal patterns of microhabitat use and prey consumption by the transparent sand dart, Kraemeria cunicularia, at a sandy beach on Iriomote Island, the Ryukyu Archipelago, Japan. Sand darts were found in sediment in the lower intertidal zone throughout the daytime regardless of changes in tidal level, whereas at nighttime these fish were found swimming. Gut content analyses revealed that the sand dart diet was dominated by harpacticoid copepods throughout the day. Analyses of meiobenthic distribution indicated that these copepods were most abundant at lower intertidal zones where highest numbers of sand darts were found during the daytime; thus, it is possible that microhabitat use of the fish is largely determined by food availability. An extensive distributional survey throughout the Ryukyu Archipelago further indicated that sand darts prefer sandy beaches with well-sorted, coarse sand. These results provide novel insights into how sand darts respond to the tidal rhythm and highlight putative key environmental factors that determine their distribution at both regional and microhabitat scales. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Alternative mating tactics in the Italian treefrog, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hyla intermedia</Emphasis>

As in many lekking anurans, Italian treefrog males use two mating tactics: they can attract females by calling vigorously or be satellites, that is, they can remain silent in proximity of a calling male and try to intercept females attracted by their neighbour. We investigated the factors that affected the expression of this mating tactic. Consistent with the conditional mating tactic hypothesis, satellites were smaller than average and smaller than their parasitised calling males. They spent a larger-than-average number of nights at the breeding site, where most of them were also observed calling. Moreover, satellites showed lower call rates and lower mating success than those of males they parasitise but not lower than those of males they did not parasitise. Overall, these results, together with those derived from the analyses of the seasonal and spatial distribution of males, provide evidence for a non-random association between satellites and calling males and are consistent with the hypothesis that satellites have spectral and temporal acoustic preferences that parallel those of females. By adopting the less-successful satellite mating tactic, competitively inferior males can nevertheless maximise their potential reproductive fitness by sexually parasitising the most attractive chorusing males.     

The rarity of twins: a result of an evolutionary battle between mothers and daughters—or do they agree?

The aim of this study was to test the hypothesis that parent–offspring conflict over parental investment might have led to the rarity of dizygotic twins in humans. We explored the theoretical prediction that twins maximize their inclusive fitness by the death of a co-twin, while mothers of twins maximize fitness by raising both twins to independence. We used life history data (1700–1900) from two parishes in Central Norway to compare differences in inclusive fitness (measured as number of children reared to the age of 16 years, using Hamilton's rule) between twins and mothers of twins. Our results show that twins maximize their inclusive fitness by the death of a co-twin, while mothers of twins raise more children by rearing both twins to adulthood. However, because twins growing up as singletons may produce higher or at least equal number of offspring than the sum of the two twins growing up together, mothers might gain more grandchildren by allowing twins to grow up as singletons. To conclude, both selfish twins and their mothers might benefit by the death of a co-twin, indicating that there is no parent–offspring conflict responsible for the rareness of twins in these human populations. Finally, we discuss the results in the light of “The Insurance Egg Hypothesis” and “The Natural Selection Hypothesis”.     

Habitat selectivity of megalopae and juvenile mud crabs (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Scylla serrata</Emphasis>): implications for recruitment mechanism

Megalopae of several crab species exhibit active habitat selection when settling. These megalopae usually select structurally complex habitats which can provide refuge and food. The portunid mud crab, Scylla serrata, is commonly found within the muddy estuaries of the Indo-West Pacific after attaining a carapace width >40 mm. Despite substantial efforts, the recruitment mechanism of juvenile mud crabs to estuaries is not understood because their megalopae and early stage crablets (carapace width <30 mm) are rarely found. We used laboratory experiments to determine whether megalopae and early stage crablets are selective among three estuarine habitats which commonly occur in Queensland, Australia. These animals were placed in arenas where they had a choice of habitats: seagrass, mud or sand, and arenas where they had no choice. Contrary to the associations exhibited by other portunid crab megalopae, S. serrata megalopae were not selective among these estuarine habitats, suggesting that they tend not to encounter these habitats, or, gain no advantage by selecting one over the others. The crablets, however, strongly selected seagrass, suggesting that residing within seagrass is beneficial to the crablets and likely increases survival. This supports the model that for S. serrata, crablets and not megalopae tend to colonise estuaries, since a selective behaviour has evolved within crablets but not megalopae.     

Effects of light exposure on the retention of kleptoplastic photosynthetic activity in the sacoglossan mollusc <Emphasis Type="Italic">Elysia viridis</Emphasis>

The effects of light exposure on the photosynthetic activity of kleptoplasts were studied in the sacoglossan mollusc Elysia viridis. The photosynthetic activity of ingested chloroplasts was assessed in vivo by non-destructively measuring photophysiological parameters using pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) fluorometry. Animals kept under starvation were exposed to two contrasting light conditions, 30 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹ (low light, LL), and 140 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹ (high light, HL), and changes in photosynthetic activity were monitored by measuring the maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (PSII), F _v/F _m, the minimum fluorescence, F _o, related to chlorophyll a content, and by measuring rapid light-response curves (RLC) of relative electron transport rate (rETR). RLCs were characterised by the initial slope of the curve, α_RLC, related to efficiency of light capture, and the maximum rETR level, rETR_m,RLC, determined by the carbon-fixation metabolism. Starvation induced the decrease of all photophysiological parameters. However, the retention of photosynthetic activity (number of days for F _v/F _m > 0), as well as the rate and the patterns of its decrease over time, varied markedly with light exposure. Under HL conditions, a rapid, exponential decrease was observed for F _v/F _m, α_RLC and rETR_m,RLC, F _o not showing any consistent trend of variation, and retention times ranged between 6 and 15 days. These results suggested that the retention of chloroplast functionality is limited by photoinactivation of PSII reaction center protein D1. In contrast, under LL conditions, a slower decrease in all parameters was found, with retention times varying from 15 to 57 days. F _v/F _m, α_RLC and rETR_m,RLC exhibited a bi-phasic pattern composed by a long phase of slow decrease in values followed by a rapid decline, whilst F _o decayed exponentially. These results were interpreted as resulting from lower rates of D1 photoinactivation under low light and from the gradual decrease in carbon provided by photosynthesis due to reduction of functional photosynthetic units.     

In vivo and in vitro differences in chloroplast functionality in the two north Atlantic sacoglossans (Gastropoda,Opisthobranchia) <Emphasis Type="Italic">Placida dendritica</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Elysia viridis</Emphasis>

The photosynthetic functionality in chloroplasts in the two sacoglossan molluscs Placida dendritica and Elysia viridis from the Trondheim fjord in Norway was studied. P. dendritica and E. viridis with no functional chloroplasts in their digestive system were introduced to the green macroalgae Codium fragile. Our results showed that P. dendritica was not able to retain functional (photosynthetic) chloroplasts. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed that chloroplasts were directly digested when phagocytosed into the digestive cells. Four stages of chloroplast degradation were observed. A corresponding operational quantum yield of chl a fluorescence (Φ_PSII ~ 0) indicated autofluorescence, and the presence of highly degraded chl a supported these observations. In contrast, E. viridis was able to retain functional chloroplasts. For this species it took only 1 week for the chloroplasts inside the digestive cells to acquire the same Φ_PSII and light utilisation coefficient (α) as C. fragile kept under the same light conditions. Data for 8 days showed a 2–6-fold increase in the maximum photosynthetic rate (P _max) and light saturation index (E _k) relative to C. fragile. This increase in available light was probably caused by a reduced package effect in the digestive gland of E. viridis relative to C. fragile, resulting in a partial photoacclimation response by reducing the turnover time of electrons (τ). Isolated pigments from C. fragile compared to E. viridis showed the same levels of photosynthetic pigments (chl a and b, neoxanthin, violaxanthin, siphonaxanthin, siphonein and β,ε-carotene) relative to μg chl a (w:w), indicating that the chloroplasts in E. viridis did not synthesise any new pigments. After 73 days of starvation, it was estimated that chloroplasts in E. viridis were able to stay photosynthetic 5–9 months relative to the size of the slugs, corresponding to an RFC of level 8 (a retention ability to retain functional chloroplasts (RFC) for more than 3 months). The reduction in Φ_PSII, P _max and α as a function of time was caused by a reduction in chloroplast health and number (chloroplast thylakoid membranes and PSII are degraded). These observations therefore conclude that chloroplasts from C. fragile cannot divide or synthesise new pigments when retained by E. viridis, but are able to partially photoacclimate by decreasing τ as a response to more light. This study also points to the importance of siphonaxanthin and siphonein as chemotaxonomic markers for the identification of algal sources of functional chloroplasts.