Independent effects of fragmentation on forest songbirds: an organism-based approach.

The degree to which spatial patterns influence the dynamics and distribution of populations is a central question in ecology. This question is even more pressing in the context of rapid habitat loss and fragmentation, which threaten global biodiversity. However, the relative influence of habitat loss and landscape fragmentation, the spatial patterning of remaining habitat, remains unclear. If landscape pattern affects population size, managers may be able to design landscapes that mitigate habitat loss. We present the results of a mensurative experiment designed to test four habitat loss vs. fragmentation hypotheses. Unlike previous studies, we measured landscape structure using quantitative, spatially explicit habitat distribution models previously developed for two species: Blackburnian Warbler (Dendroica fusca) and Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla). We used a stratified sampling design that reduced the confounding of habitat amount and fragmentation variables. Occurrence and reoccurrence of both species were strongly influenced by characteristics at scales greater than the individual territory, indicating little support for the random-sample hypothesis. However, the type and spatial extent of landscape influence differed. Both occurrence and reoccurrence of Blackburnian Warblers were influenced by the amount of poor-quality matrix at 300- and 2000-m spatial extents. The occurrence and reoccurrence of Ovenbirds depended on a landscape pattern variable, patch size, but only in cases when patches were isolated. These results support the hypothesis that landscape pattern is important for some species only when the amount of suitable habitat is low. Although theoretical models have predicted such an interaction between landscape fragmentation and composition, to our knowledge this is the first study to report empirical evidence of such nonlinear fragmentation effects. Defining landscapes quantitatively from an organism-based perspective may increase power to detect fragmentation effects, particularly in forest mosaics where boundaries between patches and matrix are ambiguous. Our results indicate that manipulating landscape pattern may reduce negative impacts of habitat loss for Ovenbird, but not Blackburnian Warbler. We emphasize that most variance in the occurrence of both species was explained by local scale or landscape composition variables rather than variables reflecting landscape pattern.     

Whole-system nutrient enrichment increases secondary production in a detritus-based ecosystem

Although the effects of nutrient enrichment on consumer-resource dynamics are relatively well studied in ecosystems based on living plants, little is known about the manner in which enrichment influences the dynamics and productivity of consumers and resources in detritus-based ecosystems. Because nutrients can stimulate loss of carbon at the base of detrital food webs, effects on higher consumers may be fundamentally different than what is expected for living-plant-based food webs in which nutrients typically increase basal carbon. We experimentally enriched a detritus-based headwater stream for two years to examine the effects of nutrient-induced changes at the base of the food web on higher metazoan (predominantly invertebrate) consumers. Our paired-catchment design was aimed at quantifying organic matter and invertebrate dynamics in the enriched stream and an adjacent reference stream for two years prior to enrichment and two years during enrichment. Enrichment had a strong negative effect on standing crop of leaf litter, but no apparent effect on that of fine benthic organic matter. Despite large nutrient-induced reductions in the quantity of leaf litter, invertebrate secondary production during the enrichment was the highest ever reported for headwater streams at this Long Term Ecological Research site and was 1.2-3.3 times higher than predicted based on 15 years of data from these streams. Abundance, biomass, and secondary production of invertebrate consumers increased significantly in response to enrichment, and the response was greater among taxa with larval life spans < or = 1 yr than among those with larval life spans >1 yr. Production of invertebrate predators closely tracked the increased production of their prey. The response of invertebrates was largely habitat-specific with little effect of enrichment on food webs inhabiting bedrock outcrops. Our results demonstrate that positive nutrient-induced changes to food quality likely override negative changes to food quantity for consumers during the initial years of enrichment of detritus-based stream ecosystems. Longer-term enrichment may impact consumers through eventual reductions in the quantity of detritus.     

Growth inhibition in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) fish exposed to tetrachloroethylene

A recent study in our laboratory has demonstrated that tetrachloroethylene (TCE) is acutely toxic to Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) larvae with a 96 hr-LC50 of 18 (17-19) mg/mL (Spencer et al., 2002). In the present study we hypothesize that TCE exposure induces a developmental effect in Japanese medaka. Growth and age specific sensitivity of Japanese medaka larvae were studied with four age groups (7, 14, 21 and 28 days old) to determine tetrachloroethylene effects on these parameters. The medaka larvae were exposed for 96 hours in a single concentration (10 mg/mL) of TCE. The toxic endpoints evaluated were larvae weight, length, water content and protein concentration. The study revealed that exposure of medaka larvae to this sub-acute concentration of TCE significantly reduced length and weight in the treated group. The difference in growth between control and treated groups was more obvious in age versus length, than in age versus weight. The dry weight-fresh weight ratio (dw/fw) was shown to be higher in the control group. Water content in TCE-treated medaka was higher than in the control group, and younger fry had more water content than older ones. A higher protein concentration was also observed in TCE-treated medaka compared to the control group. These results indicate that TCE has a profound effect on the growth and development of Japanese medaka larvae.     

Contrasting structure and composition of the understory in species-rich tropical rain forests

In large samples of trees > or = 1 cm dbh (more than 1 million trees and 3000 species), in six lowland tropical forests on three continents, we assigned species with >30 individuals to one of six classes of stature at maturity (SAM). We then compared the proportional representation of understory trees (1-2 cm dbh) among these classes. The understory of the three Asian sites was predominantly composed of the saplings of large-canopy trees whereas the African and American sites were more richly stocked with trees of the smaller SAM classes. Differences in class representation were related to taxonomic families that were present exclusively in one continent or another. Families found in the Asian plots but not in the American plot (e.g., Dipterocarpaceae, Fagaceae) were predominantly species of the largest SAM classes, whereas families exclusive to the American plots (e.g., Melastomataceae sensu stricto, Piperaceae, and Malvaceae [Bombacacoidea]) were predominantly species of small classes. The African plot was similar to Asia in the absence of those American families rich in understory species, while similar to America in lacking the Asian families rich in canopy species. The numerous understory species of Africa were chiefly derived from families shared with Asia and/or America. The ratio of saplings (1-2 cm dbh) to conspecific canopy trees (>40 cm dbh) was lower in American plots than in the Asian plots. Possible explanations for these differences include phenology, moisture and soil fertility regimes, phyletic constraints, and the role of early successional plants in forest development. These results demonstrate that tropical forests that appear similar in tree number, basal area, and the family taxonomy of canopy trees nonetheless differ in ecological structure in ways that may impact the ecology of pollinators, dispersers, and herbivores and might reflect fundamental differences in canopy tree regeneration.     

Riparian shading and groundwater enhance growth potential for smallmouth bass in Ozark streams.

Moderation of stream temperatures by riparian shading and groundwater are known to promote growth and survival of salmonid fishes, but effects of riparian shade and groundwater on to be growth of warmwater stream fishes are poorly understood or assumed to be negligible. We used stream temperature models to relate shading from riparian vegetation and groundwater inflow to summer water temperatures in Missouri Ozark streams and evaluated effects of summer water temperatures on smallmouth bass, Micropterus dolomieu, growth using a bioenergetics model. Bioenergetics model simulations revealed that adult smallmouth bass in non-spring-fed streams have lower growth potential during summer than fish in spring-fed streams, are subject to mass loss when stream temperatures exceed 27 degrees C, and will likely exhibit greater interannual variation in growth during summer if all growth-influencing factors, other than temperature, are identical between the two stream types. Temperature models indicated that increased riparian shading will expand the longitudinal extent of thermal habitat capable of supporting adult smallmouth bass growth in spring-fed stream reaches when mean daily air temperatures exceed 27 degrees C. Optimum growth temperature (22 degrees C) will be present only in spring-fed streams under these conditions. Potential for increasing shade through riparian restoration is greatest for streams <5 m wide and along north-south reaches of larger streams. However, temperature models also indicated that restoring riparian shading to maximum levels throughout a watershed would increase the total stream mileage capable of supporting positive growth of adult smallmouth bass by only 1-6% when air temperatures are at or near average summer maxima; increases in suitable thermal habitat would be greatest in watersheds with higher spring densities. Riparian management for maintenance or restoration of the thermal habitat of adult smallmouth bass during summer should be focused in areas strongly influenced by groundwater. Restoring riparian shading along spring-fed warmwater streams will likely benefit adult smallmouth bass growth and may ultimately influence population sizes.     

Spatial heterogeneity influences native and nonnative plant species richness

Spatial heterogeneity may have differential effects on the distribution of native and nonnative plant species richness. We examined the effects of spatial heterogeneity on native and nonnative plant species richness distributions in the central part of Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado, USA. Spatial heterogeneity around vegetation plots was characterized using landscape metrics, environmental/topographic variables (slope, aspect, elevation, and distance from stream or river), and soil variables (nitrogen, clay, and sand). The landscape metrics represented five components of landscape heterogeneity and were measured at four spatial extents (within varying radii of 120, 240, 480, and 960 m) using the FRAGSTATS landscape pattern analysis program. Akaike's Information Criterion adjusted for small sample size (AICc) was used to select the best models from a set of multiple linear regression models developed for native and nonnative plant species richness at four spatial extents and three levels of ecological hierarchy (i.e., landscape, land cover, and community). Both native and nonnative plant species richness were positively correlated with edge density, Simpson's diversity index and interspersion/juxtaposition index, and were negatively correlated with mean patch size. The amount of variation explained at four spatial extents and three hierarchical levels ranged from 30% to 70%. At the landscape level, the best models explained 43% of the variation in native plant species richness and 70% of the variation in nonnative plant species richness (240-m extent). In general, the amount of variation explained was always higher for nonnative plant species richness, and the inclusion of landscape metrics always significantly improved the models. The best models explained 66% of the variation in nonnative plant species richness for both the conifer land cover type and lodgepole pine community. The relative influence of the components of spatial heterogeneity differed for native and nonnative plant species richness and varied with the spatial extent of analysis and levels of ecological hierarchy. The study offers an approach to quantify spatial heterogeneity to improve models of plant biodiversity. The results demonstrate that ecologists must recognize the importance of spatial heterogeneity in managing native and nonnative plant species.     

Dispersal per recruit: an efficient method for assessing sustainability in marine reserve networks.

Marine reserves are an increasingly important tool for the management of marine ecosystems around the world. However, the effects of proposed marine reserve configurations on sustainability and yield of populations are typically not estimated because of the computational intensity of direct simulation and uncertainty in larval dispersal and density-dependent recruitment. Here we develop a method for efficiently assessing a marine reserve configuration for persistence and yield of a population with sedentary adults and dispersing larvae. The method extends the familiar sustainability criteria of individual replacement for single populations based on eggs-per-recruit (EPR) to spatially distributed populations with sedentary adults, a dispersing larval phase, and limited carrying capacity in the settlement-recruit relationship. We refer to this approach as dispersal-per-recruit (DPR). In some cases, a single DPR calculation, based on the assumption that post-settlement habitat is saturated (i.e., at maximum recruitment), is sufficient to determine population persistence, while in other cases further iterative calculations are required. These additional calculations reach an equilibrium more rapidly than a full simulation of age- or size-structured populations. From the DPR result, fishery yield can be computed from yield-per-recruit (YPR) at each point. We assess the utility of DPR calculations by applying them to single reserves, uniformly distributed systems of reserves, and randomly sized and spaced systems of reserves on a linear coastline. We find that for low levels of EPR in fished areas (e.g., 10% or less of the natural, unfished EPR when post-settlement habitats are saturated by 35% of natural settlement), a single DPR calculation is sufficient to determine persistence of the population. We also show that, in uniform systems of reserves with finite reserve size, maximal fisheries yield occurs when the density of reserves is such that all post-settlement habitat is nearly saturated with settlers. Finally, we demonstrate the application of this approach to a realistic proposed marine reserve configuration.     

Freshwater lakes--a potential source for aquaculture activities--a model study on Perumal Lake, Cuddalore, Tamil Nadu

The freshwater Perumal lake located at Cuddalore was assessed for its suitability and potential for aquaculture practices. Various hydrobiological parameters determined reveals that the various physicochemical characteristics are with in normal range of values. The DO level, BOD and COD values determined in the lake revealed the consequences of community activities and pollution possibilities. The primary productivity data revealed maximum productivity during March which infer that the lake is unaffected by anthropogenic disturbance and community contamination. The bacterial count remained higher during the monsoon periods, which characterize profuse rainfall and storm water discharge into the lake. The microfauna includes zooplankter such as cladocerans, copepods, rotifers and ostracods. Benthos include carps, catfishes, mullets and prawns. The above study revealed that the various parameters in the lake conform to the levels suited for freshwater fish culture and represents a resource for scientific management.     

Sicherheitsdatenblätter — Eine Anleitung zum sicheren Umgang?

The European Union Guideline 2001/58/EG (safety data sheet guideline) states that the safety data sheet shall enable professional users to take the necessary measures for the protection of health and safety at the workplace as well as of the environment. According to this guideline, the employer should be in the position to determine whether hazardous chemical agents do exist at the workplace, and to assesses the risk to health and safety of workers arising from their use. Can the employer actually rely on the safety data sheet? Have the present data sheets really instructed how to safely handle and manage dangerous compounds? Are the numerously arising occupational illnesses by dangerous substances just a consequence of a careless handling? This question is also important in the discussion on REACH, the new European Chemicals Policy. This paper reveals the strengths and the weaknesses as well as the potential of manufacturer information.     

Simulating the dynamics of sulfur species and zinc in wetland sediments

In situ measurements comparing vertical SO₄²⁻ profiles in vegetated and non-vegetated sediments showed that SO₄²⁻ concentrations in vegetated sediments increased significantly at the beginning of the growing season and then gradually decreased during the rest of the growing season. Throughout the growing season, SO₄²⁻ concentrations remained higher in the vegetated sediments than in the sediments without plants. The higher SO₄²⁻ concentrations in the vegetated sediments indicate that oxygen release from roots and evapotranspiration-induced advection by plants play an important role in the dynamics of sulfur species in sediments. Since the total pool of solid-phase sulfide is relatively large compared to the mass of SO₄²⁻ in the sediments, the gradual decrease of SO₄²⁻ concentrations may result from limitation of the solid-phase sulfide that is in direct contact with or very close to the roots and rhizomes. This would mean that the main pool of solid-phase sulfide and associated trace metals are not affected by the oxygen release from roots, and the associated trace metals will not become bioavailable during the growing season.