A study about remedial measures to reduce 222Rn concentration in an experimental building

Radon gas emanating from underground can spread to adjoining closed areas. It can concentrate and reach levels which represent a risk to people's health. It is well known that radon presence in most areas depends mainly on the area's geological features. Indoor radon concentrations further depend on the type of structure, construction materials and the technology used for the building. Therefore, indoor radon monitoring is of primary importance for deciding whether remedial measures are to be adopted for reducing harmful concentrations. This approach has been tried by measuring radon concentration in an experimental building situated in Milan (Italy). This building situated in a geological area that is considered at low radon risk. The results were obtained after analysing radon concentration in indoor rooms, crawl spaces, soil gas and in the atmosphere outside and by measuring before and after adoption of remedial measures. The study shows that improper building design can give rise to higher indoor radon accumulation even in an area of poor radon exhalation. Furthermore, the results enable quantification of the effectiveness of the remedial measures.     

Distributions of zinc, copper, cadmium and lead in a tropical ultisol after long-term disposal of sewage sludge

Heavy metals present in soils constitute serious environmental hazards from the point of view of polluting the soils and adjoining streams and rivers. The distribution of heavy metals in a sandy Ultisol (Arenic Kandiustult) in south eastern Nigeria subjected to 40 years disposal of sewage wastes (sludge and effluents) was studied using two profile pits (S/NSK/1 and S/NSK/2) sited in the sewage disposal area and one profile pit (NS/NSK) sited in the non-sewage disposal area. Soil samples were collected in duplicate from these soil horizons and analyzed for their heavy metal contents. The mean concentrations of Zn, Cu, Cd and Pb in the top- and sub-soil horizons of sewage soil were 79.3, 32, 0.29 and 1.15 mg/kg, respectively. These levels were high enough to constitute health and phytotoxic risks. All the metal levels were much higher in the AB horizon in the sewage than in the non-sewage soil profile, but Pb and Cu contents were also high down to the Bt1 horizon, indicating their apparent relatively high mobility in this soil. There was a significant correlation between organic matter (OM) and Zn (r=0.818**), and between OM and Cd (0.864**) in the sewage soil. The high OM status of the sewage sludge, together with its corresponding low pH, might have favoured metal-OM complexation that could reduce heavy metal mobility and phytotoxicity in this soil.     

90Sr migration to the geo-sphere from a waste burial in the Chernobyl exclusion zone

Results are presented from an ongoing field-scale experimental study (namely the Chernobyl Pilot Site project) aimed at characterization of processes controlling (90)Sr releases from a shallow trench containing nuclear fuel particles, and subsequent radionuclide transport in the underlying sandy aquifer at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant site. Microscopic analyses of waste material and leaching experiments have shown that 10-30% of the radioactive inventory is associated with chemically extra-stable Zr-U-O particles. The largest fraction of (90)Sr activity in the trench ( approximately 30-60%) is currently associated with relatively slowly dissolving non-oxidized UO(2) matrix fuel particles. The (90)Sr migration velocity in the eolian sand aquifer is retarded by sorption to approximately 9% of groundwater flow velocity (K(d) approximately 2 ml/g). The dispersivity values for non-reactive solute transport in the aquifer predicted by geostatistics (i.e. 0.8 6 cm) were confirmed by a natural gradient tracer test using (36)Cl. The observed negative correlation between hydraulic conductivity and K(d) of aquifer sediments suggests that (90)Sr could be subjected to larger dispersion in the subsurface compared with (36)Cl.     

An airborne gamma-ray spectrometry survey of nuclear sites in Belgium

As part of a wider study to define the existing background levels in Belgium an airborne gamma-ray survey was conducted in two areas associated with nuclear sites. In the Mol area, the survey zone included areas surrounding the SCK-CEN nuclear research centre, and its associated neighbourhood which includes radioactive waste stores, fuel manufacture and fabrication facilities and an international accelerator laboratory. In the vicinity of Fleurus, the survey included the IRE complex with radiochemical laboratories, irradiation facilities and stores, and isotope production accelerators. The survey was conducted using a twin engined helicopter equipped with a combined scintillation and semiconductor spectrometer. The system was installed and tested in the UK, and then transferred to Belgium for operations. The complete survey was conducted successfully within 1 week. The results provide a comprehensive record of the radiation environment of the nuclear sites at time of survey, and show a range of signals associated with the types of activity present in each area. They confirm that radiation fields are largely confined to the operational sites, and provide a traceable record against which future changes could be assessed. The demonstration of efficient deployment between two European countries, coupled with rapid mapping of many different radiometric signals around these sites confirms the utility of the airborne gamma spectrometry approach for accurate definition of enhanced radiation fields. This has important implications for emergency response.     

Regulation of nuclear radiation exposures in India

India has a long-term program of wide spread applications of nuclear radiations and radioactive sources for peaceful applications in medicine, industry, agriculture and research and is already having several thousand places in the country where such sources are being routinely used. These places are mostly outside the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) installations. DAE supplies such sources. The most important application of nuclear energy in DAE is in electricity generation through nuclear power plants. Fourteen such plants are operating and many new plants are at various stages of construction. In view of the above mentioned wide spread applications, Indian parliament through an Act, called Atomic Energy Act, 1964 created an autonomous body called Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB) with comprehensive authority and powers. This Board issues codes, guides, manuals, etc., to regulate such installations so as to ensure safe use of such sources and personnel engaged in such installations and environment receives radiation exposures within the upper bounds prescribed by them. Periodic reports are submitted to AERB to demonstrate compliance of its directives. Health, Safety and Environment Group of Bhabha Atomic Research Centres, Mumbai carries out necessary surveillance and monitoring of all installations of the DAE on a routine basis and also periodic inspections of other installations using radiation sources. Some of the nuclear fuel cycle plants like nuclear power plants and fuel reprocessing involve large radioactive source inventories and have potential of accidental release of radioactivity into the environment, an Environmental Surveillance Laboratory (ESL) is set up at each such site much before the facility goes into operation. These ESL's collect baseline data and monitor the environment throughout the life of the facilities including the decommissioning stage. The data is provided to AERB and is available to members of the public. In addition, a multi-tier system of AERB permissions is in place to ensure that all aspects of safety have been considered before permission to operate is granted. The stages where permission of AERB is essential are site selection, design data, and several stages during construction and operation. The details required by AERB include provision for treatment and storage of radioactive waste, de-commissioning procedures and provision of costs. In addition to AERB, nuclear power plants have to comply with the requirements of Ministry of Environment and Forests and get their clearance. This is given on the basis of Environmental Impact Assessment Report which should satisfy the authorities that no ecological damage will be caused and the facility will not have adverse effect on the environment. In addition, the State Pollution Control Board where the facility is to be located has to permit the site of the plant for its proposed discharges into the environment. It is largely due to the above comprehensive regulatory controls that none of the plants in India had any accident during the last 34 decades of operation. The type of measurements carried out by the ESL's and results from a few typical ESL's will be presented.     

Proposal of Indicators to Assess Urban Sustainability in Brazil

The research related here focuses on municipal situations where problems of sustainability may be defined and tackled on the basis of bottom-up management procedures with the participation of organized society. The aim is to build management models that may be implemented with reasonable administrative effort and cost. Implementation pursues the target of approaching a sustainable situation in the municipality. Environmental parameters for an ideal municipality with undefined geographical location are presented. For each parameter, a set of indicators is developed that can measure the prospect of sustainability. The indicators are defined in terms of numbers or literal concepts according to the possibility of measurement. Examples of management models are presented, which are able to approach the situation defined as sustainable by the indicators. The basic management tool is the learning curve of targeted communities, which is experimentally developed and applied. The indicators are grouped according to their range of applicability.     

Rethinking the contribution of indigenous management in small-scale water provision among selected rural communities in Cameroon

This paper describes the pro-active role of rural communities in negotiating livelihood and sustenance through the improvement of some of their local water sources. It discusses the strategies put in place to ensure the availability of water, one of the worlds scarcest natural resources. Despite some external assistance, local communities are increasingly shouldering the responsibility of ensuring the availability of water through self-reliant efforts. These attempts are being undermined by a high incidence of waterborne and water-related diseases, which are impacting on health, and hygiene and other health care delivery systems. The management of potable water is proving to be a herculean task for most communities after the departure of funding partners. To guarantee the proper maintenance of pipe borne water schemes, communities are rethinking their strategies as they grapple with difficulties to put in place viable techniques for sustainability of water supply schemes.Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Derivation of ecotoxicity thresholds for uranium

Assessment of the risk of impact from most radionuclides is based on the total radiological dose rate to the organism of concern. However, for uranium (U) there can be greater risk from chemical toxicity than radiological toxicity (depending on the isotopic composition). Chemical ecotoxicity of U is dependent on several environmental parameters. The most important are carbonate content, because of the formation of soluble carbonate complexes, and divalent cation content (Ca++ and Mg++), because of their competitive interaction with the uranyl ion (UO2++). This study summarizes the literature available to set PNECs (predicted no-effect concentrations) for chemical toxicity of U to non-human biota. The corresponding radiological doses were estimated, and as expected chemical toxicity proved to be the greater concern. There were limited data from some types of biota; however, PNECs for the types of biota of interest were as follows: terrestrial plants--250 mg U kg(-1) dry soil; other soil biota--100 mg U kg(-1) dry soil; freshwater plants--0.005 mg U L(-1) water; freshwater invertebrates--0.005 mg U L(-1) water; freshwater benthos--100 mg U kg(-1) dry sediment; freshwater fish at water hardnesses of: <10 mg CaCO3 L(-1) (very soft water)--0.4 mg U L(-1) water; 10-100 mg CaCO3 L(-1) (soft water)--2.8 mg U L(-1) water; and >100 mg CaCO3 L(-1) (hard water)--23 mg U L(-1) water; or as a function of hardness--0.26 (hardness as mg CaCO3 L(-1); mammals--0.1 mg U kg(-1) body weight d(-1).     

Natural radiation exposure in the Campo Arañuelo region in the surroundings of Almaraz nuclear power station (Spain)

During 1998 regional surveys were conducted to evaluate natural radiation exposure of people in the vicinity of the six Spanish nuclear power stations. Indoor radon, external gamma dose rates outdoors and indoors and radioactivity in soil were measured in these surveys. The highest mean annual effective dose to the population was found in the surroundings of the Almaraz nuclear power plant in the province of Cáceres and was mainly due to the presence of high radon concentrations in homes. In order to make a more accurate assessment of the dose coming from the radon in this area, a new and more extensive surgery on indoor radon with a total of 380 measurements was carried out in 2000 in the Campo Ara?uelo region around the Almaraz nuclear power station. From the results obtained in this survey, a population-weighted mean annual effective dose from radon exposure of 1.7 mSv y(-1), 44% lower than that previously reported in 1998, was estimated for the whole Campo Ara?uelo region. The maximum dose value due to radon exposure, about 4 mSv y(-1), was reached in the so-called La Vera area located in the north of this region. The relationship between the indoor radon concentrates experimentally measured, the geological characteristics of this geographic area and the information provided by the radiation map of the Spanish MARNA Project is also analyzed, confirming that La Vera area should be considered as a high radon level area.     

Acute and sublethal toxicity tests to monitor the impact of leachate on an aquatic environment

In this study, a specific landfill leachate (1200 mg l(-1) COD and 600 mg l(-1) BOD(5)) was used to develop a standardised short-term acute and longer-term sublethal ex-situ toxicity testing programme, in order to determine the potential ecological implications of leaching contaminants reaching the water table. Bioassays were undertaken with juvenile Gammarus pulex and Asellus aquaticus macro-invertebrates. Preliminary acute test variables included static and static renewed flow rates for 96-h, starved and fed specimens, and aerobic and oxygen depleting conditions. However, regardless of any test variable, the lethal concentration (LC(50)) for A. aquaticus remained at 12.3% v/v leachate in deionized water, whilst that for G. pulex was only 1%. Sublethal toxicity was judged on the basis of frequency of births and the growth rate of newly born individuals. Tests showed that even a dilution as high as 1:66- would influence the fecundity of a Gammarus population, whilst a dilution of 1:20 would affect the size of an Asellus breeding colony.