Urban Water Supply Strategies for Hyderabad, India – Future Scenarios

To keep pace with population and economic growth, the city of Hyderabad, India, will need to identify and develop new supply sources almost continually. Increasing population growth rate, declining surface water resources, overexploitation of groundwater, deterioration of ground water quality and poor sewage treatment are the major water-related issues in Hyderabad. This paper reviews the current situation facing policy makers who need to come to terms with the problem of restricted water supply and increasing demand in an urban centre such as Hyderabad, India. The City Water Balance model developed in this study can be used to analyse different scenarios that include water conservation, urban wastewater reuse and improvement of distribution and conveyance efficiency. Water conservation programs, which include a 5% conveyance efficiency improvement, reusing 90 million cubic metres (MCM) of urban runoff and adoption of water harvesting by 0.5 million households together with recycling 120 MCM of wastewater recycling wastewater would be sufficient to meet the water demand by 2031, if the population grows at a rate of 2.5%.     

Seasonal variation in physicochemical properties of coastal waters of Kalpakkam, east coast of India with special emphasis on nutrients

A study pertaining to the seasonal variation in physicochemical properties of the coastal waters was carried out at Kalpakkam coast for a period of 1 year (February 2006 to January 2007). It revealed that the coastal water was significantly influenced by freshwater input during North East (NE) monsoon and post-monsoon periods. Concentration of all the nutrients and dissolved oxygen (DO) was relatively high during the NE monsoon, whereas, salinity and chlorophyll-a (chl-a) were at their minimum level during this period. Phytoplankton production peak was observed in summer during which a typical marine condition prevailed. The present observed values of nitrate, phosphate, silicate, and turbidity are significantly high (five to ten times) compared to that of the pre-Tsunami period from this coast. Relatively low DO and chl-a concentration was noticed during the post-Tsunami period. A notable feature of this study is that though nutrient concentration in the coastal waters during post-Tsunami period has increased significantly, turbidity, the most single dominating factor, was found to adversely affect the phytoplankton production during post-Tsunami period as reflected by relatively low chl-a concentration. Thus, the post-Tsunami period may result in a change in coastal biodiversity pattern concomitant with change in coastal water quality.     

Assessment of the sources of suspended particulate matter aerosol using US EPA PMF 3.0

The main purpose of this paper was to carry out a source apportionment of suspended particulate matter (SPM) samples using positive matrix factorization procedure. The central and local Government of Japan introduced strict emission regulations in 2002/10 and 2003/10, respectively, in curbing SPM pollution from major metropolitans. This paper also highlighted the impact of the measures taken by the central and local Government of Japan on the reduction of SPM and the contributions of sources. SPM samples were collected for 6 years starting from 1999 to 2005 at two sites, i.e., site A (urban) and site B (suburban) of Yokohama, Japan. Microwave digestion and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) were employed to measure Mg, Al, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, Ga, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Ag, Cd, Cs, Ba, Pb and Bi, while water soluble ions (Na⁺, NH₄  ⁺_{4}^{\ \,+}, K⁺, Ca^2 +, Mg^2 +, Cl⁻, NO₃  ^-_{3}^{\ \,-} and SO₄  ^2-)_{4}^{\ \,2-}) as well as carbonaceous mass (EC and OC) were analyzed using ion chromatograph and CHN analyzer, respectively. The sources identified at two sites were automobile, soil dust, marine aerosol, mixed sources, and secondarily formed aerosol. Also, source quantification was performed. Automobile and soil dust were striking contributors at site A. Automobile and soil dust of SPM aerosol might be produced from local origin at current study areas. Besides, Asian dust had an impact on high concentrations of SPM aerosol in some certain period of the year due to the outflows of East Asian emission. In contrast, secondary aerosol in the form of sulfate and ammonium as well as mixed sources (coal, long-transported Cs, and other unknown sources) were remarkable at site B. Stationary/industrial combustion has apparently more impact on the release of SPM components at site B than A. Automobile regulations in 2002 and 2003, respectively, resulted in reduction of SPM by 28% for site A and 16% for site B. There was also net reduction of automobile contribution at both sites due to the above measures being implemented.     

Mapping of fluoride endemic area and assessment of F−1 accumulation in soil and vegetation

The prevalence of fluorosis is mainly due to the consumption of more fluoride (F^?1) through drinking water, vegetables, and crops. The objective of the study was mapping of F^?1 endemic area of Newai Tehsil, Tonk district, Rajasthan, India. For the present study, water, soil (0–45 cm), and vegetation samples were collected from 17 villages. Fluoride concentration in water samples ranged from 0.3 to 9.8 mg/l. Out of 17 villages studied, the amounts of F^?1 content of eight villages were found to exceed the permissible limits. Labile F^?1 content and total F^?1 content in soil samples ranges 11.00–70.05 mg/l and 50.3–179.63 μg g^?1, respectively. F^?1 content in tree species was found in this order Azadirachta indica 47.32–55.76 μg g^?1 > Prosopis juliflora 40.16–49.63 μg g^?1 > Acacia tortilis 34.39–43.60 μg g^?1. While in case of leafy vegetables, F^?1 content order was Chenopodium album 54.23–98.42 μg g^?1 > Spinacea oleracea 30.41–64.09 μg g^?1 > Mentha arvensis 35.48–51.97 μg g^?1. The order of F^?1 content in crops was found as 41.04 μg g^?1 Pennisetum glaucum > 13.61 μg g^?1 Brassica juncea > 7.98 μg g^?1 Triticum sativum in Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) farms. Among vegetation, the leafy vegetables have more F^?1 content. From the results, it is suggested that the people of KVK farms should avoid the use of highly F^?1 containing water for irrigation and drinking purpose. It has been recommended to the government authority to take serious steps to supply drinking water with low F^?1 concentration for the fluorosis affected villages. Further, grow more F^?1 hyperaccumulator plants in F^?1 endemic areas to lower the F^?1 content of the soils.     

Effect of mercury and arsenic from industrial effluents on the drinking water and comparison of the water quality of polluted and non-polluted areas: a case study of Peshawar and Lower Dir

The purpose of the present study was to find out the sources of mercury and arsenic pollution of water in the industrial area of Peshawar, the capital of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Samples of effluents, mud, and water were collected from the target area (industrial area of Peshawar), the area of water supply source, and from the less polluted area, the Lower Dir district, as the control. Hg was determined by the cold vapor generation technique, while arsenic was determined using the electrothermal atomic absorption technique. Data of the water from the industrial area were compared with that of the source area, control area, as well as with the WHO and some international drinking water quality standards. The results show that some parameters, i.e., TDS, DO, pH, and hardness, were more than the permissible limits. Textile and glass industries were found to be the major sources of Hg and As pollution. Downstream dilution of these contaminants was also observed.     

Identification of effective best management practices in sediment yield diminution using GeoWEPP: the Kasilian watershed case study

Identifying areas that are susceptible to soil erosion is crucial for water resource planning and management efforts. Furthermore, modeling has proven helpful in recognizing and monitoring high-risk areas at the watershed scale. The Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP) geospatial interface (GeoWEPP) software integrates GIS with the WEPP to analyze the spatial variation in soil loss, and it has been used as a modeling tool to determine the areas that are most prone to soil erosion and to evaluate best management practices for the Kasilian watershed in Iran. As much as 62.4 % of the agronomic land in the Kasilian watershed is affected by a high magnitude of erosion (>5 t/ha). On the basis of this study, by using soybeans, high fertilization levels, and the drill-no-tillage system, reductions of erosion by almost 32.68–34.02 % are perceivable in three critical subwatersheds that are located in the cultivated lands. Also, it is projected that reductions in the production of sediment in the range of about 36.7–47.1 % are achievable by structural management within two critical, upland subwatersheds. So, by utilizing the best management strategies, sediment yield can be lowered and the conservation of soil and water is feasible at the watershed scale. These results objectively indicate that GeoWEPP can be efficaciously used for evaluating effective management practices for developing watershed conservation.     

Seasonal variation and partition of trace metals (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Cr, Cd and Pb) in surface sediments: relationship with physico-chemical variables of water from the Calabar River, South Eastern Nigeria

The seasonal variation and partition of trace metals (Fe, Cu, Zn, Mn, Cd, Cr and Pb) in the surface sediments of the Calabar River are reported. Chemical partition of the metals in the sediments reveals that 2–30% of the total metal load was contributed by the non-detrital (acid-soluble) fraction, while fine-grained host minerals/compounds are the main carriers of the detrital (acid-insoluble) fraction (70–98%). Using multivariate statistical analysis, the seasonal fluctuations in the distribution of some of the metals show significant influence by physio-chemical changes (dissolved oxygen, pH, salinity and conductivity) in the water column. Fe–Mn oxide grain coatings and sulphide materials have been identified as scavengers of some of the non-detrital and detrital trace metals in the sediments. On the basis of index of geoaccumulation (I-geo) and comparison with previous studies, the Calabar River surface sediments have been classified as unpolluted.     

When females should contest for food – testing hypotheses about resource density, distribution, size, and quality with Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus)

Predictions of ecological models on female social relationships (van Schaik 1989) and their links with food distribution and the potential competitive regime are used to analyze the feeding and spatial behavior, and resource density, size, distribution, and quality in a forest population of Hanuman langurs (Presbytis entellus). In contrast to other populations, and assumptions on folivorous primates, the females of this population exhibit a linear dominance hierarchy. The langurs concentrated their feeding on three key resources with a low density and clumped distribution. Two out of the three key resources contained significantly higher levels of extractable protein and soluble sugar than other food plants, indicating high spatial variability of food quality. Even the mature leaves of the most preferred food plant were about twice as nutritious as those from other food plants. Group spread was small and only a single high-quality resource was used at a time. Finally, even rich resources could accommodate only a subset of a group. These findings fit predictions made for the prevalence of within-group contest competition. Given the observed food distribution and phytochemical heterogeneity of mature foliage, even females of folivorous species should contest for food. The effect of female dominance rank on size and composition of feeding parties also agrees with this prediction. A comparison with data from another forest population, where female dominance relations are weakly developed, revealed a clear-cut difference in the use and abundance of resources. It is argued that between-population differences in female social relationships within a species may be viewed as adaptive responses to local habitat conditions. Received: 1 August 1997 / Accepted after revision: 7 December 1997     

Reduction of SO2 Emissions by Ammonia Gas During Staged Combustion

To reduce SO2 emissions, ammonia gas was injected into a coal-fired fluidized-bed combustor under staged commbustion condition. The combustor was 2 m high with a 30 cm static bed height and a freeboard height of 170 cm. The ammonia gas was injected at 52 cm and 65 cm above the distributor, which had a temperature of ca. 700 °C, by an uncooled stainless-steel tube injector. The experiments investigated the effects of ammonia gas injection on sulphur dioxide emissions at staged conditions, varying the: (i) excess air level, (ii) secondary air ratio, (iii) fluidizing velocity, (iv) ammonia injection position, and (v) the ammonia : sulphur dioxide molar ratio.A maximum reduction of 66% in SO2 emissions was found at 40% excess air, 65 : 35 staging, 1.5 m/s fluidizing velocity, 65 cm injection height, and an NH3 : SO2 molar ratio of 1.2. The onset of SO2 reduction occurred at an NH3 : SO2 ratio of 0.5. The fluidizing velocity, excess air, level of staging, and ammonia injection height all have a significant influence on SO2 reduction.It is difficult to determine how the SO2 reduction varies with the operating conditions when ammonia is injected in the high temperature zone of the combustor. As sulphur oxides-ammonia reactions are low temperature reactions, the findings confirm the occurrence of reactions above the freeboard or near the exit to the cyclone.