Electromagnetic fields in offices.

With the increased use of electric and electronic equipment in our offices, our daily exposure to electromagnetic fields has become increasingly complex due to the great variety of the frequency content of the fields. Today focus has shifted from monitors as the dominating sources of electromagnetic fields to other electronic equipment, cabling, nearby substations, power lines and stray currents in buildings. In the last 5 years wireless communication has become common in our offices. These devices use radio frequency waves to communicate and are therefore sources of radio frequency fields in our offices. To a certain degree, they all add to the complicated issue of the extensive field frequencies found in offices. The exposure of office workers is generally considered to be low and not in conflict with the existing guidelines, but if a precaution approach is applied there are a number of measures that can be taken to reduce the electromagnetic fields in offices in order to obtain a good electrical environment.     

The GaNE programme in a global perspective

This paper provides the background to this special issue, outlining the extent to which the global atmospheric nitrogen cycle has been modified by human activity and outlining the range of effects. The global total emissions of reduced and oxidized nitrogen, amount to 124 Tg N, and exceed those from natural sources (34 Tg N) by almost a factor of four showing the extent to which anthropogenic activity has taken over the global N cycle. Of the 124 Tg N, 70 Tg N is emitted in the oxidized form, largely as NO and 70% of which results directly from anthropogenic activity. The remaining 54 Tg N is emitted as NH₃, (66% anthropogenic). The enhanced nitrogen emissions are associated with a range of local, regional and global issues including, acidification, eutrophication, climate change, human health and tropospheric O₃. The paper also places the Global Nitrogen Enrichment (GaNE) research programme in the UK in a wider perspective.     

Impact of Land Use on Soluble Organic Nitrogen in Soil

Although it has been hypothesized that soluble organic nitrogen (SON) plays a central role in regulating productivity in some terrestrial ecosystems, the factors controlling the size of the SON pool in soil remain poorly understood. Therefore our principal aim in this work was to assess the impact of seven different land use systems (rough and managed grassland, deciduous and coniferous woodland, heathland, wetland and tilled land) on the size of the SON and inorganic N (NO ₃ ^– , NH ₄ ⁺ ) pools in the surface soil layer (0–15 cm). After extraction with deionised water, we found that in most cases the size of the water extractable organic N (WEON) pool was similar in size to the inorganic N pool. In contrast, the KCl extractable organic N (KClEON) pool constituted the dominant form of soluble N in soils under all land uses, perhaps indicating that significant amounts were held on the soil exchange phase. In contrast to inorganic N, which varied significantly with land use, the size of the KClEON and WEON pool was similar for all land uses with the exception of KClEON in tilled land, where significantly lower amounts were observed. We conclude that SON constitutes an important soil N pool in a broad range of land uses, and that its role in microbial N assimilation, plant nutrition and ecosystem responses to atmospheric N deposition warrants further attention. SAFRD, University of Newcastle, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, NE1 7RU, U.K.     

Nitrous Oxide in Agricultural Drainage Waters Following Field Fertilisation

Dissolved nitrous oxide (N₂O), nitrate (NO₃ ^-), and ammonium (NH₄ ⁺) concentrations in an agricultural field drain were intensively measured over the period of field nitrogen (N) fertilisation and for several weeks thereafter. Supersaturations of dissolved N₂O were observed in field drain waters throughout the study. On entry to an open drainage ditch, concentrations of dissolved N₂O rapidly decreased and a total N₂O-N emission via this pathway of 13.2 g over the period of study (45 days) was calculated. This compared with a predicted emission of the order of 300 g, based on measured losses of NO₃ ^- and NH₄ ⁺ in the field drainage water, and the default IPCC emission factor of 0.01 kg N₂O-N per kg Nentering rivers and estuaries. In contrast to widespread evidence of a clear relationship between the amount of N applied to agricultural land and subsequent direct N₂O emission from the soil surface, the relationship between the amount of N₂O in soil drainage waters and the amount of N applied was poor. We conclude that the complexity, both spatially and temporally, of the processes ultimately responsible for the amount of N₂O in agricultural drainage waters make a straightforward relationship between N₂O concentration and N application rate unlikely in all but the simplest of systems.     

Effects of planned expansion of waste incineration in the Swedish district heating systems

Recent targets for reduced amounts of waste to landfills in Sweden will result in a large increase in waste incineration with recovery of energy, used primarily for district heating. The aim of this study is to investigate what changes in the usage of other fuels and technologies for district heat production would be caused by this increase. A questionnaire was sent out to the largest district heating companies, and simulations in an energy systems model were carried out. The analysis shows that increased waste incineration reduces the demand for other fuels, especially biomass, for district heat production. The effects include reductions in operating hours as well as the avoidance or postponement of investments in new plants for district heat production. Increased waste incineration will also lead to a greater use of district heating in Sweden.     

EFFECTIVENESS OF POLYACRYLAMIDE (PAM) IN IMPROVING RUNOFF WATER QUALITY FROM CONSTRUCTION SITES1

ABSTRACT: Erosion from construction sites significantly affects water quality in receiving streams. A rainfall simulator was used to evaluate the effectiveness of different methods for controlling erosion from construction sites. Erosion control methods investigated included dry and liquid applications of polyacrylamide (PAM), hydroseed, and straw mulch. Fertilizer was also applied to each plot to examine the effectiveness of the methods in reducing nutrient losses in runoff. Runoff samples were analyzed for total suspended solids (TSS), nitrate, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), ammonium, total phosphorus (TP), and orthophosphate. Among all treatments investigated, straw mulch was the most effective treatment for controlling TSS and nutrient losses during short term and long term simulations. The low liquid PAM (half the recommended PAM) treatment resulted in the highest reduction in runoff, TSS bound nitrogen, and total nitrogen (TN) concentrations and loadings. The study results indicate that a high application rate (twice the recommended rate) of PAM could actually increase runoff and TSS losses. At a low application rate, both liquid and dry PAM were effective in reducing TSS and nutrient losses in runoff. However, application of the liquid form of PAM to construction sites is more practical and perhaps more economical than applying the PAM in the dry form.     

MODELING SEDIMENT AND PHOSPHORUS LOSSES IN AN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED TO MEET TMDLs1

ABSTRACT: This paper studies the effectiveness of alternative farm management strategies at improving water quality to meet Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) in agricultural watersheds. A spatial process model was calibrated using monthly flow, sediment, and phosphorus (P) losses (1994 to 1996) from Sand Creek watershed in south‐central Minnesota. Statistical evaluation of predicted and observed data gave r² coefficients of 0.75, 0.69, and 0.49 for flow (average 4.1 m³/s), sediment load (average 0.44 ton/ha), and phosphorus load (average 0.97 kg/ha), respectively. The calibrated model was used to evaluate the effects of conservation tillage, conversion of crop land to pasture, and changes in phosphorus fertilizer application rate on pollutant loads. TMDLs were developed for sediment and P losses based on existing water quality standards and guidelines. Observed annual sediment and P losses exceeded these TMDLs by 59 percent and 83 percent, respectively. A combination of increased conservation tillage, reduced application rates of phosphorus fertilizer, and conversion of crop land to pasture could reduce sediment and phosphorus loads by 23 percent and 20 percent of existing loads, respectively. These reductions are much less than needed to meet TMDLs, suggesting that control of sediment using buffer strips and control of point sources of phosphorus are needed for the remaining reductions.     

CHARACTERIZATION OF INORGANIC PARTICLES IN SELECTED RESERVOIRS AND TRIBUTARIES OF THE NEW YORK CITY WATER SUPPLY1

ABSTRACT: Individual particle analysis (IPA) by scanning electron microscopy interfaced with automated image and X‐ray analyses was used to characterize inorganic particles in five reservoirs and four tributaries located within the Catskill and Delaware systems of the New York City water supply. Individual particle analysis provides combined elemental and morphologic characterizations. Results are presented in terms of particle projected area per unit volume (PAV), consistent with optical impacts, and partitioned into seven generic particle types according to composition. Minerals of terrigenous origins, particularly clay minerals, dominated the inorganic particle populations of all the study systems except one downstream reservoir. Higher PAV levels were observed in the Catskill system. Particle dynamics represented by PAV were driven primarily by runoff, while the reservoirs were also greatly influenced by the timing of sediment resuspension promoted by drawdown of the surface and fall mixing. The benefit of the serial configuration of the reservoirs in decreasing inorganic particles with progression downstream towards the city is demonstrated. The patterns in PAV levels among the study systems generally tracked those of more common metrics of impacts of suspensoids, including mass concentrations of suspended solids, turbidity, and Secchi disc transparency.