Feasibility study of rainwater harvesting system in Sylhet City

In rural areas in Bangladesh, groundwater is the principal source of water supply. This underground water is available in considerable amount in shallow aquifers. It is free from pathogenic microorganisms and hence water-borne diseases. In plain lands, other than hilly areas, water supply to 97% rural population comes from tube-wells, which is regarded to be a phenomenal achievement in preserving public health. Besides, a dependable water supply system all throughout the country is offset by two factors: (a) high salinity in surface plus groundwater in coastal areas; (b) want of suitable groundwater aquifers in hilly areas and the high cost of setting up tube-wells due to deep underground water table and stony layers. However, presence of arsenic in underground water now poses a serious threat to the success once made in water supply by setting up of manually operated tube-wells in the village areas—the achievement is now on the brink of total collapse. In about 61 districts out of 64, presence of arsenic exceeds a quantity of 0.05 mg/1, a permissible limit as per Bangladeshi water quality standard. Harvesting rainwater can be a pragmatic solution to this problem, which is common in many places in Sylhet especially in the hilly areas on the north eastern part of the city. This can be an alternative source of drinking water because of availability of rainwater from March to October. Heavy rain occurs from end of May till mid September, which is commonly known as the rainy season. This paper focuses on the possibility of harvesting rainwater in rural communities and thickly populated urban areas of Sylhet. It also demonstrates the scopes of harvesting rainwater using simple and low-cost technology. With setting up of a carefully planned rainwater storage tank, a family can have all of its drinking water from rain. Planned use of rainwater through rainwater harvesting in the roof catchments may fulfill the entire annual domestic water demand of a family in the rural areas of Bangladesh.     

Determination of ametryn in sugarcane and ametryn–atrazine herbicide formulations using spectrophotometric method

A sensitive spectrophotometric method has been developed for determination of ametryn in agricultural samples. The proposed method was based on reaction with pyridine and further coupling with sulfanilic acid to form a colored product. The absorbance was measured at 400 nm with a molar absorptivity of 2.1 × 10⁵ L mol⁻¹ cm⁻¹. The method shows a linear range from 0.2–20 μg mL⁻¹ with limit of detection and limit of quantification 0.16 and 0.54 μg mL⁻¹, respectively. The method has been successfully applied to the determination of ametryn in sugarcane juice and commercial formulations after separation of ametryn from triazine herbicides based on solvent extraction. Recovery values were found to be in the range of 96.0 ± 0.2% to 98.4 ± 0.1%.     

A study of the effect of physical and chemical stressors on biological integrity within the San Diego hydrologic region

Environmental agencies across the United States have searched for adequate methods to assess anthropogenic impacts on the environment. Biological assessments, which compare the taxonomic composition of an aquatic assemblage to relevant biocriteria, have surfaced as an effective method to assess the ecological integrity of US waterbodies. In this study, bioassessment data were collected and analyzed in conjunction with physical habitat and chemical stressor data for streams and rivers within the San Diego basin from 1998 through 2005. Physical stressors such as sediment loading, riparian destruction, and in-stream habitat homogenization affect many locations in the region. However, physical habitat measures alone were found to frequently overestimate the biological integrity of streams in the region. Many sites within the San Diego Basin, although unaffected by physical stressors, continue to exhibit low biological integrity scores. Sites with low biological integrity tend to possess higher specific conductance and salinity compared to sites with high biological integrity. We suggest that one possible reason for these differences is the source water used for municipal purposes.     

Bioaccumulation surveillance in Milford Haven Waterway

Biomonitoring of contaminants (metals, organotins, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), PCBs) was undertaken in Milford Haven Waterway (MHW) and a reference site in the Tywi Estuary (St Ishmael/Ferryside) during 2007–2008. Bioindicator species encompassed various uptake routes—Fucus vesiculosus (dissolved contaminants); Littorina littorea (grazer); Mytilus edulis and Cerastoderma edule (suspension feeders); and Hediste (=Nereis) diversicolor (sediments). Differences in feeding and habitat preference have subtle implications for bioaccumulation trends though, with few exceptions, contaminant burdens in MHW were higher than the Tywi reference site, reflecting inputs. Elevated metal concentrations were observed at some MHW sites, whilst As and Se (molluscs and seaweed) were consistently at the higher end of the UK range. However, for most metals, distributions in MH biota were not exceptional. Several metal-species combinations indicated increases in bioavailability upstream, which may reflect the influence of geogenic/land-based sources—perhaps enhanced by lower salinity. TBT levels in MH mussels were below OSPAR toxicity thresholds and in the Tywi were close to zero. Phenyltins were not accumulated appreciably in M. edulis, whereas some H. diversicolor populations appear subjected to localized (historical) sources. PAHs in H. diversicolor were distributed evenly across most of MHW, although acenaphthene, fluoranthene, pyrene, benzo(a)anthracene and chrysene were highest at one site near the mouth; naphthalenes in H. diversicolor were enriched in the mid-upper Haven (a pattern seen in M. edulis for most PAHs). Whilst PAH (and PCB) concentrations in MH mussels were mostly above reference and OSPAR backgrounds, they are unlikely to exceed ecotoxicological thresholds. Bivalve Condition indices (CI) were highest at the Tywi reference site and at the seaward end of MH, decreasing upstream—giving rise to several significant (negative) relationships between CI and body burdens. Despite the possible influence of salinity gradient as a complicating factor, multivariate analysis indicated that a combination of contaminants could influence the pattern in condition (and the biomarkers metallothionein and TOSC). Integrating bioaccumulation data with biological and biochemical endpoints is seen as a useful way to discriminate environmental quality of moderately contaminated areas such as MHW and to prioritise cause and effect investigations.     

Occurrence of estrogen hormones in biosolids,animal manure and mushroom compost

The presence of natural estrogen hormones as trace concentrations in the environment has been reported by many researchers and is of growing concern due to its possible adverse effects on the ecosystem. In this study, municipal biosolids, poultry manure (PM) and cow manure (CM), and spent mushroom compost (SMC) were analyzed for the presence of seven estrogen hormones. 17α-estradiol, 17β-estradiol, 17α-dihydroequilin, and estrone were detected in the sampled biosolids and manures at concentrations ranging from 6 to 462 ng/g of dry solids. 17α-estradiol, 17β-estradiol, and estrone were also detected in SMC at concentrations ranging from 4 to 28 ng/g of dry solids. Desorption experiments were simulated in the laboratory using deionized water (milli-Q), and the aqueous phase was examined for the presence of estrogen hormones to determine their desorption potential. Very low desorption of 0.4% and 0.2% estrogen hormones was observed from municipal biosolids and SMC, respectively. An estimate of total estrogen contribution from different solid waste sources is reported. Animal manures (PM and CM) contribute to a significant load of estrogen hormones in the natural environment.     

Assessment of drinking water quality using ICP-MS and microbiological methods in the Bholakpur area,Hyderabad, India

A total of 16 people died and over 500 people were hospitalized due to diarrhoeal illness in the Bholakpur area of Hyderabad, India on 6th May 2009. A study was conducted with immediate effect to evaluate the quality of municipal tap water of the Bholakpur locality. The study consists of the determination of physico-chemical properties, trace metals, heavy metals, rare earth elements and microbiological quality of drinking water. The data showed the variation of the investigated parameters in samples as follows: pH 7.14 to 8.72, EC 455 to 769 μS/cm, TDS 303.51 to 515.23 ppm and DO 1.01 to 6.83 mg/L which are within WHO guidelines for drinking water quality. The water samples were analyzed for 27 elements (Li, Be, B, Na, Mg, Al, Si, K, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Mo, Ag, Cd, Sb, Ba and Pb) using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The concentrations of Fe (0.12 to 1.13 mg/L), Pb (0.01 to 0.07 mg/L), Cu (0.01 to 0.19 mg/L), Ni (0.01 to 0.15 mg/L), Al (0.16 to 0.49 mg/L), and Na (38.36 to 68.69 mg/L) were obtained, which exceed the permissible limits of the World Health Organization (WHO) for drinking water quality guidelines. The remaining elements were within the permissible limits. The microbiological quality of water was tested using standard plate count, membrane filtration technique, thermotolerant coliform (TTC), and most probable number (MPN) methods. The total heterotrophic bacteria ranged from 1.0 × 10⁵ to 18 × 10⁷ cfu/ml. Total viable bacteria in all the water samples were found to be too numerable to count and total number of coliform bacteria in all water samples were found to be of order of 1,100 to >2,400 MPN index/100 ml. TTC tested positive for coliform bacteria at 44.2°C. All the water samples of the study area exceeded the permissible counts of WHO and that (zero and minimal counts) of the control site (National Geophysical Research Institute) water samples. Excessively high colony numbers indicate that the water is highly contaminated with microorganisms and is hazardous for drinking purposes. Bacteriological pollution of drinking water supplies caused diarrhoeal illness in Bholakpur, which is due to the infiltration of contaminated water (sewage) through cross connection, leakage points, and back siphoning.     

Pollution by organochlorine pesticides in Navachiste-Macapule,Sinaloa, Mexico

The lagoon system of Navachiste-Macapule is located in northern Mexico, in the state of Sinaloa, with an area of 24,000 ha. The main economic activity in the area is agriculture, and the lagoon lies next to the irrigation district ID-063 which covers 116,615 ha. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the levels of pollution generated by organochlorine pesticides (OC) in the surface sediments of the lagoon and in the agricultural drains of the ID-063 that are supposedly transported into the system as a result of agricultural activities and runoff from adjacent land. For this, between 2006 and 2007, 45 surface sediment samples were collected (warm dry, rainy and cold dry) from 15 sampling sites, during the three climatic seasons. Of these, eight were located inside the lagoon in marine conditions (salinity >31 PSU) and seven in the agricultural drains of the ID-063 in freshwater conditions (salinity <5 PSU). The average concentration of the OC in the sediments was 44.75 ng g^− 1, among which the group of the alicyclic compounds presented the greatest concentrations. The average value of the total organic carbon (TOC) in the sediments of the system was 0.90%. The sediments collected inside the lagoon had an average OC concentration of 18.97 ng g^− 1, and the predominant type of sediment was fine to very fine sand. The average OC concentration in the sediments collected in the agricultural drains was 75.69 ng g^− 1, where fine sediments (silt) were predominant. The presence of methoxychlor, endrin and heptachlor suggested that these compounds were continuously used in the system, even though their use is forbidden in Mexico.     

Impact of water quality on bacterioplankton assemblage along Cértima River Basin (central western Portugal) assessed by PCR–DGGE and multivariate analysis

The information on bacterial community composition (BCC) in Portuguese water bodies is very scarce. Cértima River (central western Portugal) is known to have high levels of pollution, namely organic. In the present work, the BCC from a set of 16 water samples collected from Cértima River Basin and its main tributaries was characterized using 16S rDNA–denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, a culture-independent molecular approach. Molecular data were related to environmental parameters through multivariate analysis to investigate potential impact of water pollution along the river. Principal component analysis using environmental data showed a water quality gradient from more pristine waters (at the mountain tributaries) to waters with increasingly eutrophic potential (such as Fermentelos Lake). This gradient was mainly defined by factors such as organic and inorganic nutrient sources, electrical conductivity, hydrogen carbonate concentration, and pH. Molecular results showed variations in BCC along Cértima River Basin but in the main river section, a Bacteroidetes phylotype (Flavobacterium sp.) proved to be dominant throughout the river course. Multivariate analysis suggests that spatial variation of BCC along the Cértima River Basin depended mainly on parameters such as Chl a, total suspended solid (TSS), total organic carbon, electrical conductivity, and HCO _boxclose^-_{3}^{-} levels. Bacteroidetes phylotypes were all related to higher electrical conductivity and HCO₃^-_{3}^{-} levels although some of these were also correlated with high SO₄^2-_{4}^{2-} and others with high soluble reactive phosphorus, nitrate, TN, and Kjeld-N levels. The Gammaproteobacteria occurrence was correlated with high SO₄^2-_{4}^{2-} levels. One of the Betaproteobacteria phylotypes showed to correlate with low redox potential (E_h) and high temperature, pH, TSS, and Chl a levels while another one showed a negative correlation with Chl a values.     

On-line dechlorination–hydrogenation of chlorinated paraffin mixtures using GC and GC/MS

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are straight chain hydrocarbons that are produced as complex mixtures and are used as flame retardants and paint additives. These mixtures are extremely difficult to characterize using conventional chromatographic methods, as conventional gas chromatography results in unresolved complex chromatograms that preclude the identification and quantification of individual congeners or any reasonable assessment of the average carbon chain length. Carbon chain length is an important parameter for assessing physical properties and the toxicity of these materials. We have modified and improved a previously published gas chromatography–flame ionization detector method that uses Pd catalyst held in the gas chromatograph injector to simultaneously dechlorinate the CPs and separate the resulting alkanes. In addition, we have adapted this method to gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. Dehalogenation of other compounds was also studied with this system to investigate potential application to other complex halogenated mixtures.     

Gas–particle concentration,distribution, and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at a traffic area of Giza,Egypt

Atmospheric particulate and gaseous polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) samples were collected from an urban area in Dokki (Giza) during the summer of 2007 and the winter of 2007–2008. The average concentrations of PAHs were 1,429.74 ng/m³ in the particulate phase, 2,912.56 ng/m³ in the gaseous phase, and 4,342.30 ng/m³ in the particulate + gaseous phases during the period of study. Dokki has high level concentrations of PAH compounds compared with many polluted cities in the world. The concentrations of PAH compounds in the particulate and gaseous phases were higher in the winter and lower in the summer. Total concentrations of PAHs in the particulate phase and gaseous phase were 22.58% and 77.42% in summer and 36.97% and 63.03% in winter of the total (particulate + gaseous) concentrations of PAHs, respectively. The gaseous/particulate ratios of PAHs concentration were 3.43 in summer and 1.71 in winter. Significant negative correlation coefficients were found between the ambient temperature and concentrations of the total PAHs in the particulate and gaseous phases. The distribution of individual PAHs and different categories of PAHs based on aromatic ring number in the particulate and gaseous phases during the summer and winter were nearly similar, indicating similar emission sources of PAHs in both two seasons. Benzo(b)fluoranthene in the particulate phase and naphthalene in the gaseous phase were the most abundant compounds. Diagnostic concentration ratios of PAH compounds indicate that these compounds are emitted mainly from pyrogenic sources, mainly local vehicular exhaust emissions. Health risks associated with the inhalation of individual PAHs in particulate and gaseous phases were assessed on the basis of its benzo(a)pyrene equivalent concentration. Dibenzo(a,h)anthracene and benzo(a)pyrene in the particulate phase and benzo(a)pyrene and benzo(a)anthracene in the gaseous phase were the greatest contributors to the total health risks. The relative mean contributions of the total carcinogenic activity (concentrations) of all PAHs to the total concentrations of PAHs were 29.37% and 25.15% in the particulate phase and 0.76% and 0.92% in the gaseous phase during the summer and winter, respectively. These results suggest that PAHs in the particulate phase in the ambient air of Dokki may pose a potential health risk.