Using constant head step tests to determine hydraulic apertures in fractured rock

The initial step in the analysis of contaminant transport in fractured rock requires the consideration of groundwater velocity. Practical methods for estimating the average linear groundwater velocity (vˉ) in fractured rock require determination of hydraulic apertures which are commonly calculated by applying the cubic law using transmissivity (T) values and the number of hydraulically active fractures in the test interval. High-resolution, constant-head step injection testing of cored boreholes in a 100 m thick fractured dolostone aquifer was conducted using inflatable packers to isolate specific test intervals from the rest of the borehole. The steps in each test interval were gradually increased from very low to much higher injection rates. At smaller injection rates, the flow rate vs. applied pressure graph projects through the origin and indicates Darcian flow; non Darcian flow is evident at higher injection rates. Non-Darcian flow results in significantly lower calculated T values, which translates to smaller hydraulic aperture values. Further error in the calculated hydraulic aperture stems from uncertainty in the number of hydraulically active fractures in each test interval. This estimate can be inferred from borehole image and core logs, however, all of the fractures identified are not necessarily hydraulically active. This study proposes a method based on Reynolds number calculations aimed at improving confidence in the selection of the number of active fractures in each test interval.     

Editor's perspective‐‐‐Shale gas development: Environmental issues and opportunities

Many professionals in the environmental industry have questioned whether the rapid expansion in shale gas development, particularly in the Marcellus Shale Play, is providing business opportunities. While gas production is a routine practice, the development of shale gas requires a process (fracturing, or, more commonly, “fracing'') that uses chemicals and is far more intrusive to the subsurface environment than traditional gas production. In this Editor's Perspective, we evaluate the environmental issues surrounding shale gas development, with a specific focus on the Marcellus Shale Play because it is currently the most active play in the United States, from both the drilling and political perspectives. In addition, we examine where the business opportunities are likely to be for environmental professionals relative to shale gas development. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Migration of acidic groundwater seepage from uranium-tailings impoundments, 2. Geochemical behavior of radionuclides in groundwater

In this second paper of a series on groundwater seepage from uranium tailings, the general geochemical behavior of radionuclides is described and then applied to data from the field site, Seepage Area A of the Nordic Main impoundment near Elliot Lake, Ontario. The delineation of radionuclide behavior requires (1) the calculation of total element concentration by the summation of concentrations of each element's isotopes (the isotopic concentrations are calculated from the isotopes' radioactivities), (2) the evaluation of solid-liquid interactions using total element concentrations, and (3), for particular isotopes, the evaluation of the extent to which parental geochemical behavior causes a deviation in the isotope's behavior from that of its total element. A computerized speciation program, WATRAD, is used to evaluate aqueous complexation and mineral saturation indices of radium, actinium, thorium, and uranium. Data from Seepage Area A on isotopes of these four elements plus ²¹⁰Pb show that the geochemical behavior of radionuclides can be best defined on an individual isotopic basis rather than on an elemental basis.     

A case study of an isolated wind powered electricity system meeting 100% of local demand

Using meteorological and electricity demand data for a 4-year period, electricity demand in Shetland was modeled to provide an estimate of the demand over a 30-year period from 1 January 1981. That modeled demand was then compared to estimated wind power output over the same period using the WAsP model. The wind farm output was estimated for a range of sizes of wind farm up to the consented 370 MW Viking Wind Farm in Shetland. Some wind power was available for 94% of the time and the 370 MW wind farm would meet 100% of demand for nearly 80% of the time. The statistics of single and accumulated deficits were calculated for a range of wind farms and estimates of the amount of additional generation capacity and additional power requirements were assessed. The study suggests that with storage, wind power in Shetland could meet all electricity demand in Shetland at around £130 to £150/MWh (excluding subsidy) and with a grid connection allowing the sale of excess power, those costs could be reduced.     

Think globally,act locally: neighbourhood pollution and the future of the earth

Each year governments and industry around the globe spend billions of dollars in search of treatments and cures for diseases that shorten lives, which often means gadgets, implants, radiation and pills. These “cures”, do not get to the root of the problem. Perhaps it is time for us to adjust our thinking to be more proactive instead of reactive in public health. Perhaps we need to consider confronting environmental pollution of air, soil and water at a local level. As the Physicians for Social Responsibility point out, we should be “preventing what we cannot cure”. One such preventive measure is ensuring that our communities, including our poor inner-city neighbourhoods, enjoy a clean environment. We challenge local and national policy-makers to respond to the global call and to take action to address environmental toxins; to take local action to ameliorate the pollution of the air, water and soil in so many of our nation’s neighbourhoods. A person’s neighbourhood, and the proximity of dangerous environmental contaminants within it, is a powerful predictor of how long s/he will live. While situations like the poisoning of the water in Flint, Michigan have gotten some attention, they are generally treated as the exception rather than a reflection of real environmental hazards that exist in the west. Moreover we wonder why more endemic issues of neighbourhood environmental contamination that shorten human lives are not a priority for local action or that it is not linked to disproportionate production of greenhouse gases that cause climate change/warming/chaos.     

Comparison of an assay for Dehalococcoides DNA and a microcosm study in predicting reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes in the field

The study aims to compare the detection of 16S rRNA gene of Dehalococcoides species and the microcosm study for biotransformation in predicting reductive dechlorination of chlorinated ethenes in ground water at hazardous waste sites. A total of 72 ground water samples were collected from 12 PCE or TCE contaminated sites in the United States. The samples were analyzed and used to construct microcosms in the laboratory. The results showed that the presence of Dehalococcoides DNA was well associated with dechlorination to ethene in the field. Nearly half of the wells where Dehalococcoides DNA was detected had ethene as a dechlorination end product. In comparison, for ground water samples of 16 wells where ethene was detected, ethene was produced in 11 of the corresponding microcosms. For most microcosms, during two years of incubation, dechlorination was less extensive than that observed in the field.     

The variability of free tropospheric ozone over Beltsville,Maryland (39N, 77W) in the summers 2004–2007

Ozone profiles are often used to investigate day-to-day and year-to-year variability in origins of free tropospheric ozone. With this in mind, more than 50 ozonesonde launches were conducted in Beltsville, MD, during the summers of 2004 through 2007. Budgets of free tropospheric ozone were calculated for each ozone profile in the four summers using a laminar identification (LID) method and unusual episodes were analyzed with respect to meteorological variables. The laminar method showed that stratosphere-to-troposphere transport (ST) accounted for greater than 50% of the free tropospheric ozone column on 17% of days sampled, a more pronounced influence than regional convective and lightning (RCL) sources. The ST origins were confirmed with trajectories, and tracers (water vapor and potential vorticity). The amount of free tropospheric ozone from ST and RCL sources varied from year-to-year (up to 13%) and can be explained by differences in mean meteorological patterns. On average, almost 30% of the free tropospheric column was attributed to ST influence, about twice as much as RCL, although the LID method may not capture weeks-old lightning influences as in a chemical model. The prevalence of ST ozone in summertime Beltsville soundings was similar to six sounding sites in the IONS-04 campaign [Thompson, A.M., et al., 2007b. Intercontinental Transport Experiment Ozonesonde Network Study (IONS, 2004): 1. Summertime upper tropospheric/lower stratosphere ozone over northeastern North America. J. Geophys. Res. 112, D12S12; Thompson, A.M., et al., 2007c. Intercontinental Transport Experiment Ozonesonde Network Study (IONS, 2004): 2. Tropospheric ozone budgets and variability over northeastern North America. J. Geophys. Res. 112, D12S13.] and to statistics from a 30 year climatology of European soundings [Collette, A., Ancellet, G., 2005. Impact of vertical transport processes on the tropospheric ozone layering above Europe. Part II: Climatological analysis of the past 30 years. Atmos. Environ. 39, 5423–5435]. The Beltsville record also demonstrated the value of soundings for air quality forecasting in an urban area. The 22 nighttime soundings collected over Beltsville in 2004–2007 can be divided into distinct polluted and unpolluted subsets, the former 20 ppbv higher in residual layer ozone (1 km) than the latter. These distinctions propagated to daytime differences of 10 ppbv at the surface in the Washington, DC, area, with the high-ozone residual layers leading to non-attainment of the National Ambient Air Quality Standard for ozone. More frequent ozone observations aloft appear essential for better understanding ozone variability and for enabling air quality modelers to achieve more accurate ozone forecasts.     

Mercury bioaccumulation and risk to three waterbird foraging guilds is influenced by foraging ecology and breeding stage

We evaluated mercury (Hg) in five waterbird species representing three foraging guilds in San Francisco Bay, CA. Fish-eating birds (Forster's and Caspian terns) had the highest Hg concentrations in thier tissues, but concentrations in an invertebrate-foraging shorebird (black-necked stilt) were also elevated. Foraging habitat was important for Hg exposure as illustrated by within-guild differences, where species more associated with marshes and salt ponds had higher concentrations than those more associated with open-bay and tidal mudflats. Importantly, Hg concentrations increased with time spent in the estuary. Surf scoter concentrations tripled over six months, whereas Forster's terns showed an up to 5-fold increase between estuary arrival and breeding. Breeding waterbirds were at elevated risk of Hg-induced reproductive impairment, particularly Forster's terns, in which 48% of breeding birds were at high risk due to their Hg levels. Our results highlight the importance of habitat and exposure timing, in addition to trophic position, on waterbird Hg bioaccumulation and risk.