Testing the use of juvenile Salmo trutta L. as biomonitors of heavy metal pollution in freshwater

Individual specimens of Salmo trutta were captured, from four sampling sites in Galician rivers (NW Spain) affected by different types of contamination: diffuse urban waste, run-off from an unrestored dump at a copper mine and waste from a fish farm. The ages of the captured trouts were established and only those belonging to the 1+ age class were selected for study. The liver and kidney were removed from each fish and analysed to determine the tissue concentrations of Cu, Fe and Zn. The results obtained showed that: (i) the use of 1+ individuals allowed differentiation of contamination scenarios on the basis of the tissue concentrations of metal; (ii) the use of 1+ individuals allowed standardization of the time of exposure, which was sufficiently long for differential uptake to have taken place; (iii) liver tissue provided the best results as, less effort was required than for processing kidney tissue, and significant differences between sampling sites were detected because the intrapopulational variability in metal levels was lower than for kidney, and (iv) the levels of elements detected were not affected by basal tissue concentrations or residual concentrations due to past contamination, which older trouts may have been exposed to. In addition, the use of 1+ trout may provide better results in annual environmental sampling surveys.     

Diel cycles of arsenic speciation due to photooxidation in acid mine drainage from the Iberian Pyrite Belt (Sw Spain)

Twenty four hours diel cycles of arsenic speciation in Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) due to photooxidation have been reported for the first time. AMD samples were taken during 48 h (31st March and 1st April, 2005) at 6 h intervals from the effluent of a massive abandoned polymetallic sulphide mine of the Iberian Pyrite Belt (Sw Spain). Samples were preserved in situ using cationic exchange prior to analysis by coupled high performance liquid chromatography, hydride generation and atomic fluorescence spectrometry (HPLC-HG-AFS) for arsenic speciation. The results indicated the presence of inorganic arsenic species with daily means of 262mugl(-1) for As(V) and 107 microg l(-1) for As(III). No marked diel trend was observed for As(V). However, a marked diel trend was observed for As(III) in the two studied days, with maximum concentrations during nighttime (141-143 microg l(-1)) and minimum concentrations at daytime (72-77 microg l(-1)). This difference in concentration during daytime and nighttime is ca. 100%. A similar diel cycle was observed for iron. An explanation for the arsenic diel cycles observed is the light induced photooxidation of As(III) and the elimination of As(V) due to its adsorption onto Fe precipitates during the daytime. Furthermore, the diel changes in arsenic speciation emphasize the importance of designing suitable sampling strategies in AMD systems.     

A batch study on the bio-fixation of carbon dioxide in the absorbed solution from a chemical wet scrubber by hot spring and marine algae

Carbon dioxide mass transfer is a key factor in cultivating micro-algae except for the light limitation of photosynthesis. It is a novel idea to enhance mass transfer with the cyclic procedure of absorbing CO(2) with a high performance alkaline abosorber such as a packed tower and regenerating the alkaline solution with algal photosynthesis. Hence, the algae with high affinity for alkaline condition must be purified. In this study, a hot spring alga (HSA) was purified from an alkaline hot spring (pH 9.3, 62 degrees C) in Taiwan and grows well over pH 11.5 and 50 degrees C. For performance of HSA, CO(2) removal efficiencies in the packed tower increase about 5-fold in a suitable growth condition compared to that without adding any potassium hydroxide. But ammonia solution was not a good choice for this system with regard to carbon dioxide removal efficiency because of its toxicity on HSA. In addition, HSA also exhibits a high growth rate under the controlled pHs from 7 to 11. Besides, a well mass balance of carbon and nitrogen made sure that less other byproducts formed in the procedure of carboxylation. For analysis of some metals in HSA, such as Mg, Mn, Fe, Zn, related to the photosynthesis increased by a rising cultivated pH and revealed that those metals might be accumulated under alkaline conditions but the growth rate was still limited by the ratio of bicarbonate (useful carbon source) and carbonate. Meanwhile, Nannochlopsis oculta (NAO) was also tested under different additional carbon sources. The results revealed that solutions of sodium/potassium carbonate are better carbon sources than ammonia carbonate/bicarbonate for the growth of NAO. However, pH 9.6 of growth limitation based on sodium was lower than one of HSA. The integrated system is, therefore, more feasible to treat CO(2) in the flue gases using the algae with higher alkaline affinity such as HSA in small volume bioreactors.     

Risk assessment of trace elements in the stomach contents of Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphins and Finless Porpoises in Hong Kong waters

The potential health risks due to inorganic substances, mainly metals, was evaluated for the two resident marine mammals in Hong Kong, the Indo-Pacific Humpback Dolphin (Sousa chinensis) and the Finless Porpoise (Neophocaena phocaenoides). The stomachs from the carcasses of twelve stranded dolphins and fifteen stranded porpoises were collected and the contents examined. Concentrations of thirteen trace elements (Ag, As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Hg, Mn, Ni, Se, V and Zn) were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). An assessment of risks of adverse effects was undertaken using two toxicity guideline values, namely the Reference Dose (RfD), commonly used in human health risk assessment, and the Toxicity Reference Value (TRV), based on terrestrial mammal data. The levels of trace metals in stomach contents of dolphins and porpoises were found to be similar. Risk quotients (RQ) calculated for the trace elements showed that risks to the dolphins and porpoises were generally low and within safe limits using the values based on the TRV, which are less conservative than those based on the RfD values. Using the RfD-based values the risks associated with arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, nickel and mercury were comparatively higher. The highest RQ was associated with arsenic, however, most of the arsenic in marine organisms should be in the non-toxic organic form, and thus the calculated risk is likely to be overestimated.     

Bioavailability and plant accumulation of heavy metals and phosphorus in agricultural soils amended by long-term application of sewage sludge

Amendment of agricultural soils with municipal sewage sludges provides a valuable source of plant nutrients and organic matter. Nevertheless, addition of heavy metals and risks of eutrophication continue to be of concern. Metal behaviour in soils and plant uptake are dependent on the nature of the metal, sludge/soil physico-chemical properties and plant species. A pot experiment was carried out to evaluate plant production and heavy metal uptake, soil heavy metal pools and bioavailability, and soil P pools and possible leaching losses, in agricultural soils amended with sewage sludge for at least 10 years (F20) compared to non-amended soils (control). Sewage sludge application increased soil pH, N, Olsen-extractable-P, DOC and exchangeable Ca, Mg and K concentrations. Total and EDTA-extractable soil concentrations of Cu and Zn were also significantly greater in F20, and soil metal (Cu, Mn and Zn) and P fractionation altered. Compared to the control, in F20 relative amounts of acid-extractable (Mn, Zn), reducible (Mn, Zn) and oxidisable (Cu, Zn) metal fractions were greater, and a dominance of inorganic P forms was observed. Analyses of F20 soil solutions highlighted risks of PO4 and Cu leaching. However, despite the observed increases in metal bioavailability sewage sludge applications did not lead to an increase in plant shoot concentrations (in wild plants or crop species). On the contrary, depending on the plant species, Mn and Zn tissue concentrations were within the deficiency level for most plants.     

Microbial degradation and impact of Bracken toxin ptaquiloside on microbial communities in soil

The carcinogenic and toxic ptaquiloside (PTA) is a major secondary metabolite in Bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum (L.) Kuhn) and was hypothesized to influence microbial communities in soil below Bracken stands. Soil and Bracken tissue were sampled at field sites in Denmark (DK) and New Zealand (NZ). PTA contents of 2.1 +/- 0.5 mg g(-1) and 37.0 +/- 8.7 mg g(-1) tissue were measured in Bracken fronds from DK and NZ, respectively. In the two soils the PTA levels were similar (0-5 microg g(-1) soil); a decrease with depth could be discerned in the deeper B and C horizons of the DK soil (weak acid sandy Spodosol), but not in the NZ soil (weak acid loamy Entisol). In the DK soil PTA turnover was predominantly due to microbial degradation (biodegradation); chemical hydrolysis was occurring mainly in the uppermost A horizon where pH was very low (3.4). Microbial activity (basal respiration) and growth ([3H]leucine incorporation assay) increased after PTA exposure, indicating that the Bracken toxin served as a C substrate for the organotrophic microorganisms. On the other hand, there was no apparent impact of PTA on community size as measured by substrate-induced respiration or composition as indicated by community-level physiological profiles. Our results demonstrate that PTA stimulates microbial activity and that microorganisms play a predominant role for rapid PTA degradation in Bracken-impacted soils.     

Bioconcentration, biomagnification and metabolism of 14C-terbutryn and 14C-benzo[a]pyrene in Gammarus fossarum and Asellus aquaticus

The contribution of bioconcentration and biomagnification of 14C-terbutryn and 14C-benzo[a]pyrene via food and water to the bioaccumulation in Gammarus fossarum and Asellus aquaticus was investigated in single species-tests. In this investigation the uptake of 14C-terbutryn and 14C-benzo[a]pyrene via food and water by G. fossarum (L.) and A. aquaticus (L.) was examined. Bioconcentration factors (BCFs) and biomagnification factors (BMFs) were determined. Calculated BCFs were clearly higher than BMFs, indicating that water is the primary route of uptake. The uptake of terbutryn and benzo[a]pyren via water in G. fossarum and A. aquaticus is faster than uptake via food. The elimination and metabolism of the two chemicals by G. fossarum and A. aquaticus were studied. Terbutryn was eliminated almost completely in both species. In general, the elimination of terbutryn from G. fossarum and A. aquaticus was fast with half-life of 5 h. The elimination of terbutryn by G. fossarum after biomagnification is slower than after bioconcentration. No difference was found in elimination of terbutryn by A. aquaticus after biomagnification and after bioconcentration. Metabolites of terbutryn in G. fossarum and A. aquaticus were analyzed by HPLC. After the bioconcentration experiment a higher percentage of metabolites was found in G. fossarum than in A. aquaticus. This was confirmed for the experiment with uptake via food. The spectrum of metabolites was similar in both species, with hydroxyterbutryn being the major metabolism product in water. 14C-B[a]P could nearly completely be eliminated by G. fossarum (rest of activity 2%) after uptake via water. 14C-B[a]P could not be eliminated by G. fossarum and A. aquaticus after uptake via food. The metabolite could not be identified.     

Antimony distribution and mobility in topsoils and plants (Cytisus striatus, Cistus ladanifer and Dittrichia viscosa) from polluted Sb-mining areas in Extremadura (Spain)

A study about topsoil antimony distribution and mobility from the soils to the biomass has been afforded in three abandoned Sb mining areas located at Extremadura. Physico-chemical characteristics of the soils and total antimony levels were measured in soils and autochthonous plant species (Cytisus striatus, Cistus ladanifer and Dittrichia viscosa). Comparison with corresponding values in reference areas isolated from the mining activities is discussed. Antimony mobility in the soils was estimated by measuring the water extractable fraction; low results were obtained for the three soil areas, with no statistical differences. Plant ability to accumulate antimony was estimated by use of plant accumulation coefficients (PAC). Seasonal (spring vs. autumn) effects on the antimony content in the plant species. Cytisus striatus from Mari Rosa mine presented antimony excluder characteristics, whereas Dittrichia viscosa specimens growing in San Antonio mine showed a significant antimony bioaccumulation.     

Algal-bacterial interactions in metal contaminated floodplain sediments

The aim of the present study was to investigate algal-bacterial interactions in a gradient of metal contaminated natural sediments. By means of multivariate techniques, we related the genetic structure (denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, DGGE) and the physiological structure (community-level physiological profiling, CLPP) of the bacterial communities to the species composition of the algal communities and to the abiotic environmental variables, including metal contamination. The results revealed that genetic and physiological structure of the bacterial communities correlated with the species composition of the algal community, but hardly to the level of metal pollution. This must be interpreted as an indication for a strong and species-specific linkage of algal and bacterial species in floodplain sediments. Metals were, however, not proven to affect either the algal or the bacterial communities of the Dutch river floodplains.     

Stomatal conductance of semi-natural Mediterranean grasslands: implications for the development of ozone critical levels

Intra-genus and intra-specific variation and the influence of nitrogen enrichment on net assimilation and stomatal conductance of some annual Trifolium species of Mediterranean dehesa grasslands were assessed under experimental conditions. Also gas exchange rates were compared between some Leguminosae and Poaceae species growing in the field in a dehesa ecosystem in central Spain. The results showed that the previously reported different O3 sensitivity of some Trifolium species growing in pots does not seem to be related to different maximum g(s) values. In addition, no clear differences on gas exchange rates could be attributed to Leguminosae and Poaceae families growing in the field, with intra-genus variation being more important than differences found between families. Further studies are needed to increase the database for developing a flux-based approach for setting O3 critical levels for semi-natural Mediterranean species.