Relationship between leaf antioxidants and ozone injury in Nicotiana tabacum ‘Bel-W3’ under environmental conditions in São Paulo,SE – Brazil

Previous studies have reported that the extent of leaf injury in Nicotiana tabacum “Bel-W3” exposed to environmental conditions in the city of São Paulo is influenced by weather conditions. This influence may occur by means of antioxidant responses. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate whether daily antioxidant responses to environmental variations interfere on the progression of leaf injury on plants of this cultivar during their exposure in a state park of São Paulo and to determine a linear combination of variables, among antioxidants and environmental factors, which mostly explain this visible response. Plants were exposed at the mentioned site for 14 days in four different experiments. During each experiment, three plants were daily sampled to determine the accumulated percentage of leaf area affected by necrosis and antioxidant responses (concentrations of total ascorbic acid (AA) and activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and peroxidases (POD)). Ozone concentrations and weather conditions were also daily measured. Pearson correlations and multivariate analyses assessed the relationship between biological and environmental variables. Leaf injury appeared between the 3rd and 6th days of exposure and increased over the exposure periods. The daily concentrations of AA tended to decrease with time of exposure in all experiments, but the activity of SOD and POD oscillated during plant exposure. Positive correlations were observed between AA or SOD and O₃ concentrations, as well as negative correlations between AA and air temperature. The increasing percentage of leaf necrosis across the whole period was explained by decreasing levels of AA 2 days before injury estimation and by higher O₃ concentrations 5 days before (R² = 0.36; p < 0.001). The use of N. tabacum Bel-W3 as a bioindicator can be restricted by leaf antioxidant responses to both atmospheric contamination and weather conditions.     

A validated 2-D diffusion–advection model for prediction of drift from ground boom sprayers

Correct field drift prediction is a key element in environmental risk assessment of spraying applications. A reduced order drift prediction model based on the diffusion–advection equation is presented. It allows fast assessment of the drift potential of specific ground boom applications under specific environmental wind conditions that obey the logarithmic wind profile. The model was calibrated based on simulations with a validated Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model. Validation of both models against 38 carefully conducted field experiments is successfully performed for distances up to 20 m from the field edge, for spraying on flat pasture land. The reduced order model succeeded in correct drift predictions for different nozzle types, wind velocities, boom heights and spray pressures. It used 4 parameters representing the physical aspects of the drift cloud; the height of the cloud at the field edge, the mass flux crossing the field edge, the settling velocity of the droplets and the turbulence. For the parameter set and range considered, it is demonstrated for the first time that the effect of the droplet diameter distribution of the different nozzle types on the amount of deposition spray drift can be evaluated by a single parameter, i.e., the volume fraction of droplets with a diameter smaller than 191 μm. The reduced order model can be solved more than 4 orders of magnitude faster than the comprehensive CFD model.     

Predicting bioremediation of hydrocarbons: Laboratory to field scale

There are strong drivers to increasingly adopt bioremediation as an effective technique for risk reduction of hydrocarbon impacted soils. Researchers often rely solely on chemical data to assess bioremediation efficiently, without making use of the numerous biological techniques for assessing microbial performance. Where used, laboratory experiments must be effectively extrapolated to the field scale. The aim of this research was to test laboratory derived data and move to the field scale. In this research, the remediation of over thirty hydrocarbon sites was studied in the laboratory using a range of analytical techniques. At elevated concentrations, the rate of degradation was best described by respiration and the total hydrocarbon concentration in soil. The number of bacterial degraders and heterotrophs as well as quantification of the bioavailable fraction allowed an estimation of how bioremediation would progress. The response of microbial biosensors proved a useful predictor of bioremediation in the absence of other microbial data. Field-scale trials on average took three times as long to reach the same endpoint as the laboratory trial. It is essential that practitioners justify the nature and frequency of sampling when managing remediation projects and estimations can be made using laboratory derived data. The value of bioremediation will be realised when those that practice the technology can offer transparent lines of evidence to explain their decisions.     

Temporal concentration changes of DEET,TCEP, terbutryn,and nonylphenols in freshwater streams of Hesse,Germany: possible influence of mandatory regulations and voluntary environmental agreements

Background, aim, and scope  

The present study focuses on the temporal concentration changes of four common organic pollutants in small freshwater streams of Hesse, Germany. The substances (tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP), the technical isomer mixture of 4-nonylphenol (NP), 2-(t-butylamino)-4-(ethylamino)-6-(methylthio)-s-triazine (terbutryn), and N,N-diethyl-m-toluamide (DEET)) are subject to differing regulations. Whereas the use of NP and the related nonylphenolethoxylates (NPEOs) are almost completely banned under EU directive 2003/53/EC, the herbicide terbutryn is only restricted for use as a herbicide in the majority of member states of the European Union (EU). In contrast, TCEP and DEET are not regulated by legislation, but have been replaced in some products through consumer pressure. The impact of regulation on the environmental concentrations of these pollutants is discussed.     

Air pollutant concentrations near three Texas roadways, part II: Chemical characterization and transformation of pollutants

Spatial gradients of vehicular emitted air pollutants were measured in the vicinity of three roadways in the Austin, Texas area: (1) State Highway 71 (SH-71), a heavily traveled arterial highway dominated by passenger vehicles; (2) Interstate 35 (I-35), a limited access highway north of Austin in Georgetown; and (3) Farm to Market Road 973 (FM-973), a heavily traveled surface roadway with significant truck traffic. A mobile monitoring platform was used to characterize the gradients of CO and NO_x concentrations with increased distance from each roadway, while concentrations of carbonyls in the gas-phase and fine particulate matter mass and composition were measured at stationary sites upwind and at one (I-35 and FM-973) or two (SH-71) downwind sites. Regardless of roadway type or wind direction, concentrations of carbon monoxide (CO), nitric oxide (NO), and oxides of nitrogen (NO_x) returned to background levels within a few hundred meters of the roadway. Under perpendicular wind conditions, CO, NO and NO_x concentrations decreased exponentially with increasing distance perpendicular to the roadways. The decay rate for NO was more than a factor of two greater than for CO, and it comprised a larger fraction of NO_x closer to the roadways than further downwind suggesting the potential significance of near roadway chemical processing as well as atmospheric dilution. Concentrations of most carbonyl species decreased with distance downwind of SH-71. However, concentrations of acetaldehyde and acrolein increased farther downwind of SH-71, suggesting chemical generation from the oxidation of primary vehicular emissions. The behavior of particle-bound organic species was complex and further investigation of the size-segregated chemical composition of particulate matter (PM) at increasing downwind distances from roadways is warranted. Fine particulate matter (PM_2.5) mass concentrations, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), hopanes, and elemental carbon (EC) concentrations generally exhibited concentrations that decreased with distance downwind of SH-71. Concentrations of organic carbon (OC) increased from upwind concentrations immediately downwind of SH-71 and continued to increase further downwind from the roadway. This behavior may have primarily resulted from condensation of semi-volatile organic species emitted from vehicle sources with transport downwind of the roadway.     

Numerical simulation of an array of fences in Saemangeum reclaimed land

This paper discusses about the quantitative effect of windbreak fences on wind velocity in the reclaimed land at Saemangeum in South Korea. Windbreak fences were constructed in the reclaimed land to reduce the wind velocity to prevent the generation and diffusion of dust. However, up to this time, no in-depth studies were conducted to quantitatively measure the effect of the windbreak fences on wind velocity thus an optimum windbreak structure is not yet determined. Using CFD simulations, the effects of fence porosity, fence height, and the distance between the adjacent fences were investigated. A wind tunnel experiment was initially conducted and data gathered were used to develop the CFD models. From the experiments and CFD simulations, the overall percentage difference of the measured velocities was 7.20% which is generally acceptable to establishing the reliability of the CFD models. The reduction effect on wind velocity was measured in between the adjacent fences up to a height of 0.6 m from the ground surface. In terms of porosity ( = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6), 0.2 was found to be the optimum value. Conversely, the effect of fence height (0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 m) showed no significant difference; therefore, 0.6 m height is recommended. In addition, the reduction effect of distance between the adjacent fences (2, 4 and 6 m) on wind velocity having a 0.2 porosity has decreased to about 75% regardless of the distance. In the case of the reclaimed land in Saemangeum, a decrease of 75% can prevent the generation and diffusion of dusts. However, the source of dusts is very large. Therefore, constructing an array of windbreak with 6 m distance between them is deemed necessary.     

Spatiotemporal modelling of ozone distribution in the State of California

This paper is concerned with the spatiotemporal mapping of monthly 8-h average ozone (O₃) concentrations over California during a 15-years period. The basic methodology of our analysis is based on the spatiotemporal random field (S/TRF) theory. We use a S/TRF decomposition model with a dominant seasonal O₃ component that may change significantly from site to site. O₃ seasonal patterns are estimated and separated from stochastic fluctuations. By means of Bayesian Maximum Entropy (BME) analysis, physically meaningful and sufficiently detailed space–time maps of the seasonal O₃ patterns are generated across space and time. During the summer and winter months the seasonal O₃ concentration maps exhibit clear and progressively changing geographical patterns over time, suggesting the existence of relationships in accordance with the typical physiographic and climatologic features of California. BME mapping accuracy can be superior to that of other techniques commonly used by EPA; its framework can rigorously assimilate useful data sources that were previously unaccounted for; the generated maps offer valuable assessments of the spatiotemporal O₃ patterns that can be helpful in the identification of physical mechanisms and their interrelations, the design of human exposure and population health models, and in risk assessment. As they focus on the seasonal patterns, the maps are not contingent on short-time and locally prevalent weather conditions, which are of no interest in a global and non-forecasting framework. Moreover, the maps offer valuable insight about the space–time O₃ concentration patterns and are, thus, helpful for disentangling the influence of explanatory factors or even for identifying some influential ones that could have been otherwise overlooked.     

Tethered balloon-based soundings of ozone,aerosols, and solar radiation near Mexico City during MIRAGE-MEX

A tethered balloon sampling system was used to measure vertical profiles of ozone, particles, and solar radiation in the atmospheric boundary layer on the northern edge of Mexico City, in March 2006 as part of the Megacity Impact on Regional and Global Environment-Mexico experiment. Several commercial sensors, designed for surface applications, were deployed on a tethered balloon platform.Profiles indicate that for these 3 scalars the boundary layer (surface up to 700 m) was well mixed in the period 10:00–16:00 LST. Good agreement was observed for median surface and balloon ozone and particle number concentrations. For most profiles, the surface deposition of ozone was not significant compared to median profile concentrations. Particle number concentration (0.3, 0.5, 1.0 and 5.0 μm) also showed little variation with attitude. Radiatprofiles showed a monotonic increase in diffuse radiation from the maximum altitude of profiles to the surface. Consequently, it was inferred that surface measurements of these likely were representative of lower boundary layer values during this time period.     

Characterization and sources assignation of PM2.5 organic aerosol in a rural area of Spain

The results from a year-long study of the organic composition of PM2.5 aerosol collected in a rural area influenced by a highway of Spain are reported. The lack of prior information related to the organic composition of PM2.5 aerosol in Spain, concretely in rural areas, led definition of the goals of this study. As a result, this work has been able to characterize the main organic components of atmospheric aerosols, including several compounds of SOA, and has conducted a multivariate analysis in order to assign sources of particulate matter. A total of 89 samples were taken between April 2004 and April 2005 using a high-volume sampler. Features and abundance of n-alkanes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), alcohols and acids were separately determined using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and high performance liquid chromatography analysis. The Σn-alkane and ΣPAHs ranged from 3 to 81 ng m^?3 and 0.1 to 6 ng m^?3 respectively, with higher concentrations during colder months. Ambient concentrations of Σalcohols and Σacids ranged from 21 to 184 ng m^?3 and 39 to 733 ng m^?3, respectively. Also, several components of secondary organic aerosol have been quantified, confirming the biogenic contribution to ambient aerosol. In addition, factor analysis was used to reveal origin of organic compounds associated to particulate matter. Eight factors were extracted accounting more than 83% of the variability in the original data. These factors were assigned to a typical high pollution episode by anthropogenic particles, crustal material, plant waxes, fossil fuel combustion, temperature, microbiological emissions, SOA and dispersion of pollutants by wind action. Finally, a cluster analysis was used to compare the organic composition between the four seasons.     

Assessment of source apportionment by Positive Matrix Factorization analysis on fine and coarse urban aerosol size fractions

This study was conducted in order to investigate the differences observed in source profiles in the urban environment, when chemical composition parameters from different aerosol size fractions are subjected to factor analysis. Source apportionment was performed in an urban area where representative types of emission sources are present. PM₁₀ and PM₂ samples were collected within the Athens Metropolitan area and analysed for trace elements, inorganic ions and black carbon. Analysis by two-way and three-way Positive Matrix Factorization was performed, in order to resolve sources from data obtained for the fine and coarse aerosol fractions. A difference was observed: seven factors describe the best solution in PMF3 while six factors in PMF2. Six factors derived from PMF3 analysis correspond to those described by the PMF2 solution for the fine and coarse particles separately. These sources were attributed to road dust, marine aerosol, soil, motor vehicles, biomass burning, and oil combustion. The additional source resolved by PMF3 was attributed to a different type of road dust. Combustion sources (oil combustion and biomass burning) were correctly attributed by PMF3 solely to the fine fraction and the soil source to the coarse fraction. However, a motor vehicle's contribution to the coarse fraction was found only by three-way PMF. When PMF2 was employed in PM₁₀ concentrations the optimum solution included six factors. Four source profiles corresponded to the previously identified as vehicles, road dust, biomass burning and marine aerosol, while two could not be clearly identified. Source apportionment by PMF2 analysis based solely on PM₁₀ aerosol composition data, yielded unclear results, compared to results from PMF2 and PMF3 analyses on fine and coarse aerosol composition data.